Between those last precise accounts of military engagements which
antiquity has left us in small number, and what may be called the
modern history of war, there lies a period of many centuries—quite
1400 years—during which the details of an action and even the main
features of a campaign are never given us by contemporary recorders.
Through all that vast stretch of time we are compelled, if we desire
to describe with any accuracy, and at any length, the conduct of a
battle, to “reconstitute” the same. In other words, we have to argue
from known conditions to unknown. We have to establish by a comparison
of texts and of traditions, and by other processes which will be dealt
with in a moment, a number of elements which, where a modern action is
concerned, numerous memoirs and official record often accompanied by
elaborate maps can put clearly before us.
We should note that the line of division between what we will call a
medieval battle and a modern one, though it cannot, of course, be
precisely established, corresponds roughly to the sixteenth century.
The battles of the seventeenth are for the most part open in detail to
the historian, from copious evidence afforded by contemporary writers
and by our considerable knowledge of the tactics and armament of the
time. And this, of course, is still truer of the eighteenth and of the
nineteenth centuries. Subsequent to the wide employment of printing,
and throughout the sixteenth century, the tendency shown by
contemporaries to set down detail steadily increases, but the whole of
that century is transitional in this matter.
The battles of the fifteenth, of the fourteenth, and earlier
centuries, differ entirely as to their evidence. We must gather it from
manuscript authorities, often rare, sometimes unique. Those authorities
are, again, not always contemporary. They never by any chance give us a
map, and rarely a definite topographical indication. They are summary,
their motive is ecclesiastical or civil rather than military, they
present at the best the picturesque side of an engagement, and at the
worst they preserve a bare mention of its date, or the mere fact that
it took place.
Even in the elementary point of numbers, without some knowledge of
which it is so difficult to judge the nature of a field, we are
commonly at a loss. Where a smaller force upon the defensive has
discomfited a larger attacking force, the dramatic character of such a
success (and Crécy was one of them) has naturally led to an
exaggeration of the disproportion. The estimate of loss is very
commonly magnified and untrustworthy, for that is an element which, in
the absence of exact record, both victors and vanquished inevitably
tend to enlarge. We are not as a rule given the hours, sometimes, but
not often, the state of the weather, and, especially in the earlier
cases, the local or tactical result is of so much greater importance to
the chronicler than the strategical plan, that we are left with little
more knowledge at first hand than the fact that A won and B lost.
So true is this, that with regard to the majority of the great
actions of the Dark Ages no contemporary record even enables us to fix
their site within a few miles. That is true, for instance, of the
decisive defeat of Attila in 451, of the Mahommedans by Charles Martel
in 732, and of the final victory of Alfred over the Danes in 878.
Scholarship has established, with infinite pains and within small
limits of doubt, the second and the third. The first is still disputed.
So it is with the victory of Clovis over the Visigoths, and with any
number of minor actions. Even when we come to the later centuries, and
to a more complete knowledge, we are pursued by this difficulty, though
it is reduced. Thus we know the square mile within which the Battle of
Hastings was fought, but the best authorities have disputed its most
important movements and characters. Similarly we can judge the general
terrain of most of the Crusading fights, but with no precision, and
only at great pains of comparison and collation.
The battle which forms the object of this little monograph, late as
was its date, was long the subject of debate during the nineteenth
century, upon the elementary point of the English position and its
aspect. And, though that and other matters may now be regarded as
established, we owe our measure of certitude upon them not to any care
upon the part of our earliest informers, but to lengthy and close
argument conducted in our time.
There is no space in such a short book as this to discuss all the
causes which combined to produce this negligence of military detail in
the medieval historian: that he was usually not a soldier, that after
the ninth century armies cannot be regarded as professional, and that
the interest of the time lay for the mass of readers in the results
rather than in the action of a battle, are but a few of these.
But though we have no space for any full discussion, it is worth the
reader's while to be informed of the general process by which
scholarship attempts to reconstitute an engagement, upon which it has
such insufficient testimony; and as the Battle of Crécy is the first in
this series which challenges this sort of research, I will beg leave to
sketch briefly the process by which it proceeds.
The first thing to be done, then, in attempting to discover what
exactly happened during such a battle as that of Crécy, is to tabulate
our sources. These are of three kinds—tradition, monuments, and
documents.
Of these three, tradition is by far the most valuable in most
research upon affairs of the Dark or Middle Ages, and it is nothing but
a silly intellectual prejudice, the fruit of a narrow religious
scepticism, now fast upon the wane, which has offered to neglect it.
Unfortunately, however, tradition is a particularly weak guide in
this one department of knowledge. In estimating the character of a
great man it is invaluable. It plays a great part in deciding us upon
the nature of social movements, in helping us to locate the sites of
buildings that have disappeared, and particularly of shrines; it gives
us ample testimony (too often neglected) to the authenticity of sacred
documents, and to the origin of laws. It is even of some assistance in
establishing certain main points upon a military action, if documents
are in default. For instance, a firm tradition of the site of a battle
is evidence not only in the absence of documents, but in negation of
doubtful or vague ones, and so is a firm tradition concerning the
respective strength of the parties, if that tradition can be stated in
general terms. But for the particular interest of military history it
is worthless because it is silent. Even the civilian to-day, and, for
that matter, the soldier as well, who is not accustomed to this
science, would find it tedious to note, and often impossible to
recognise, those points which form the salient matters for military
history. There can be no tradition of the exact moments in which such
and such a development in a battle occurred, of contours, of range,
etc., save where here and there some very striking event (as in the
case of the projectile launched into the midst of Acre during the Third
Crusade) startles the mind of the onlooker, and remains unforgotten.
In the particular case of Crécy, tradition fixes for us only two
points—though these have proved of considerable importance in modern
discussion—the point where the King of Bohemia fell, and the point
from which Edward III. watched the battle.
Of monuments, again, we have a very insufficient supply, and in the
case of Crécy, hardly any, unless the point already alluded to, where
the blind king was struck down, and the cross marking it be counted, as
also the foundations of the mill, which was the view-point of the
English commander.
It is to documents, then, that we must look, and, unfortunately for
this action, our principal document is not contemporary. It is from the
pen of Froissart, who was but nine years old when the battle was
fought, and who wrote many years after its occurrence. Even so, his
earlier version does not seem to be familiar to the public of this
country, though it is certainly the more accurate.
Froissart used a contemporary document proceeding from the pen of
one “John the Fair,” a canon of Liége. Of the lesser authorities some
are contemporary: notably Baker of Swynford, and Villani, who died
shortly after the battle.
But the whole bulk of material at our disposal is pitifully small,
and the greater part of what the reader will have set before him in
what follows is the result of an expansion and criticism of the few
details which writers of the period have bequeathed to us.
When the documentary evidence, contemporary, or as nearly
contemporary as possible, has been tabulated, the historian of a
medieval battle next proceeds to consider what may be called the
“limiting circumstances” within which the action developed, and these
have much more than a negative value. As he proceeds to examine and to
compare them, they illuminate many a doubtful point and expand many an
obscure allusion.
For instance, in the case of Crécy, we carefully consider the
contours, upon the modern map, of a terrain which no considerable
building operations or mining has disfigured. We mark the ascertainable
point at which the Somme was crossed, and calculate the minimum time in
which a host of the least size to which we can limit Edward's force
could have marched from that to the various points mentioned in the
approach to the battle-field. We ascertain the distance from the scene
of action to the forest boundary. We argue from the original royal
possession and subsequent conservation of that forest its permanent
limits. We can even establish with some accuracy the direction of the
wind, knowing how the armies marched, how the sun stood relative to the
advancing force, and their impression of the storm that broke upon
them. We calculate, within certain limits of error, the distance
necessary for deployment. We argue from the known character of the
armour and weapons employed certain details of the attack and defence.
We mark what were certainly the ancient roads, and we measure the
permanent obstacles afforded by the physical nature of the field.
I give these few points as examples only. They are multiplied
indefinitely as one's study proceeds, and in the result a fairly
accurate description of so famous, though so ill attested, an action as
this of Crécy can be reconstituted.
With all this there remains a large margin which cannot be generally
set down as certain, and which even in matters essential must be
written tentatively, with such phrases as “it would seem,” or
“probably” to excuse it. But history is consoled by the reflection that
all these gaps may be filled by further research or further discovery,
and that each new effort of scholarship bridges one and then another.
As to the critical power by which each individual writer will decide
between conflicting statements, or apparently irreconcilable
conditions, this must be left to his own power of discrimination and to
the reader's estimate of his ability to weigh evidence. He is in duty
bound—as I have attempted to do very briefly in certain notes—to give
the grounds of his decision, and, having done so, he admits his reader
to be a judge over himself: with this warning, however, that historical
judgment is based upon a vast accumulation of detail acquired in many
fields besides those particularly under consideration, and that a
competent historian generally claims an authority in his decisions
superior to that reposing upon no more than a mere view of limited
contemporary materials.