1 The growth of communism
In order to understand today's China, we have to go back in time to
report events which were cut short or left out of our earlier
discussion in order to present them in the context of this chapter.
Although socialism and communism had been known in China long ago,
this line of development of Western philosophy had interested Chinese
intellectuals much less than liberalistic, democratic Western ideas. It
was widely believed that communism had no real prospects for China, as
a dictatorship of the proletariat seemed to be relevant only in a
highly industrialized and not in an agrarian society. Thus, in its
beginning the “Movement of May Fourth” of 1919 had Western ideological
traits but was not communistic. This changed with the success of
communism in Russia and with the theoretical writings of Lenin. Here it
was shown that communist theories could be applied to a country similar
to China in its level of development. Already from 1919 on, some of the
leaders of the Movement turned towards communism: the National
University of Peking became the first centre of this movement, and
Ch'en Tu-hsiu, then dean of the College of Letters, from 1920 on became
one of its leaders. Hu Shih did not move to the left with this group;
he remained a liberal. But another well-known writer, Lu Hsuen
(1881-1936), while following Hu Shih in the “Literary Revolution,”
identified politically with Ch'en. There was still another man, the
Director of the University Library, Li Ta-chao, who turned towards
communism. With him we find one of his employees in the Library, Mao
Tse-tung. In fact, the nucleus of the Communist Party, which was
officially created as late as 1921, was a student organization
including some professors in Peking. On the other hand, a student group
in Paris had also learned about communism and had organized; the
leaders of this group were Chou En-lai and Li Li-san. A little later, a
third group organized in Germany; Chu Te belonged to this group. The
leadership of Communist China since 1949 has been in the hands of men
of these three former student groups.
After 1920, Sun Yat-sen, too, became interested in the developments
in Soviet Russia. Yet, he never actually became a communist; his belief
that the soil should belong to the tiller cannot really be combined
with communism, which advocates the abolition of individual
land-holdings. Yet, Soviet Russia found it useful to help Sun Yat-sen
and advised the Chinese Communist Party to collaborate with the KMT
(Kuomintang). This collaboration, not always easy, continued until the
fall of Shanghai in 1927.
In the meantime, Mao Tse-tung had given up his studies in Peking and
had returned to his home in Hunan. Here, he organized his countrymen,
the farmers of Hunan. It is said that at the verge of the northern
expedition of Chiang Kai-shek, Mao's adherents in Hunan already
numbered in the millions; this made the quick and smooth advance of the
communist-advised armies of Chiang Kai-shek possible. Mao developed his
ideas in written form in 1927; he showed that communism in China could
be successful only if it was based upon farmers. Because of this
unorthodox attitude, he was for years severely attacked as a
deviationist.
When Chiang Kai-shek separated from the KMT in 1927, the main body
of the KMT remained in Hankow as the legal government. But now, while
Chiang Kai-shek executed all leftists, union leaders, and communists
who fell into his hands, tensions in Hankow increased between the
Chinese Communist Party and the rest of the KMT. Finally, the KMT
turned against the communists and reunited with Chiang Kai-shek. The
remaining communists retreated to the Hunan-Kiangsi border area, the
centre of Mao's activities; even the orthodox communist wing, which had
condemned Mao, now had to come to him for protection from the KMT. A
small communist state began to develop in Kiangsi, in spite of pressure
and, later, attacks of the KMT against them. By 1934, this pressure
became so strong that Kiangsi had to be abandoned, and in the epic
“Long March” the rest of the communists and their army fought their way
through all of western and north-western China into the sparsely
inhabited, underdeveloped northern part of Shensi, where a new
socialistic state was created with Yen-an as its capital.
After the fall of the communist enclave in Kiangsi, the prospects
for the Nationalist regime were bright; indeed, the unification of
China was almost achieved. At this moment a new Japanese invasion
threatened and demanded the full attention of the regime. Thus, in
spite of talk about land reform and other reforms which might have led
to a liberalization of the government, no attention was given to
internal and social problems except to the suppression of communist
thought. Although all leftist publications were prohibited, most
historians and sociologists succeeded in writing Marxist books without
using Marxist terminology, so that they escaped Chiang's censors. These
publications contributed greatly to preparing China's intellectuals and
youth for communism.
When the Japanese War began, the communists in Yen-an and the
Nationalists under Chiang Kai-shek agreed to co-operate against the
invaders. Yet, each side remembered its experiences in 1927 and
distrusted the other. Chiang's resistance against the invaders became
less effective after the Japanese occupied all of China's ports;
supplies could reach China only in small quantities by airlift or via
the Burma Road. There was also the belief that Japan could be defeated
only by an attack on Japan itself and that this would have to be
undertaken by the Western powers, not by China. The communists, on
their side, set up a guerrilla organization behind the Japanese lines,
so that, although the Japanese controlled the cities and the lines of
communication, they had little control over the countryside. The
communists also attempted to infiltrate the area held by the
Nationalists, who in turn were interested in preventing the communists
from becoming too strong; so, Nationalist troops guarded also the
borders of communist territory.
American politicians and military advisers were divided in their
opinions. Although they recognized the internal weakness of the
Nationalist government, the fighting between cliques within the
government, and the ever-increasing corruption, some advocated more
help to the Nationalists and a firm attitude against the communists.
Others, influenced by impressions gained during visits to Yen-an, and
believing in the possibility of honest co-operation between a communist
regime and any other, as Roosevelt did, attempted to effect a coalition
of the Nationalists with the communists.
At the end of the war, when the Nationalist government took over the
administration, it lacked popular support in the areas liberated from
the Japanese. Farmers who had been given land by the communists, or who
had been promised it, were afraid that their former landlords, whether
they had remained to collaborate with the Japanese or had fled to West
China, would regain control of the land. Workers hoped for new social
legislation and rights. Businessmen and industrialists were faced with
destroyed factories, worn-out or antiquated equipment, and an unchecked
inflation which induced them to shift their accounts into foreign banks
or to favour short-term gains rather than long-term investments. As in
all countries which have suffered from a long war and an occupation,
the youth believed that the old regime had been to blame, and saw
promise and hope on the political left. And, finally, the Nationalist
soldiers, most of whom had been separated for years from their homes
and families, were not willing to fight other Chinese in the civil war
now well under way; they wanted to go home and start a new life. The
communists, however, were now well organized militarily and well
equipped with arms surrendered by the Japanese to the Soviet armies as
well as with arms and ammunition sold to them by KMT soldiers;
moreover, they were constantly strengthened by deserters from the KMT.
The civil war witnessed a steady retreat by the KMT armies, which
resisted only sporadically. By the end of 1948, most of mainland China
was in the hands of the communists, who established their new capital
in Peking.
2 Nationalist China in Taiwan
The Nationalist government retreated to Taiwan with those soldiers
who remained loyal. This island was returned to China after the defeat
of Japan, though final disposition of its status had not yet been
determined.
Taiwan's original population had been made up of more than a dozen
tribes who are probably distant relatives of tribes in the Philippines.
These are Taiwan's “aborigines,” altogether about 200,000 people in
1948.
At about the time of the Sung dynasty, Chinese began to establish
outposts on the island; these developed into regular agricultural
settlements toward the end of the Ming dynasty. Immigration increased
in the eighteenth and especially the nineteenth centuries. These
Chinese immigrants and their descendants are the “Taiwanese,” Taiwan's
main population of about eight million people as of 1948.
Taiwan was at first a part of the province of Fukien, whence most of
its Chinese settlers came; there was also a minority of Hakka, Chinese
from Kuangtung province. When Taiwan was ceded to Japan, it was still a
colonial area with much lawlessness and disorder, but with a number of
flourishing towns and a growing population. The Japanese, who sent
administrators but no settlers, established law and order, protected
the aborigines from land-hungry Chinese settlers, and attempted to
abolish headhunting by the aborigines and to raise the cultural level
in general. They built a road and railway system and strongly stressed
the production of sugar cane and rice. During the Second World War, the
island suffered from air attacks and from the inability of the Japanese
to protect its industries.
After Chiang Kai-shek and the remainder of his army and of his
government officials arrived in Taiwan, they were followed by others
fleeing from the communist regime, mainly from Chekiang, Kiangsu, and
the northern provinces of the mainland. Eventually, there were on
Taiwan about two million of these “mainlanders,” as they have sometimes
been called.
When the Chinese Nationalists took over from the Japanese, they
assumed all the leading positions in the government. The Taiwanese
nationals who had opposed the Japanese were disappointed; for their
part, the Nationalists felt threatened because of their minority
position. The next years, especially up to 1952, were characterized by
terror and bloodshed. Tensions persisted for many years, but have
lessened since about 1960.
The new government of Taiwan resembled China's pre-war government
under Chiang Kai-shek. First, to maintain his claim to the legitimate
rule of all of China, Chiang retained—and controlled through his
party, the KMT—his former government organization, complete with
cabinet ministers, administrators, and elected parliament, under the
name “Central Government of China.” Secondly, the actual government of
Taiwan, which he considered one of China's provinces, was organized as
the “Provincial Government of Taiwan,” whose leading positions were at
first in the hands of KMT mainlanders. There have since been elections
for the provincial assembly, for local government councils and boards,
and for various provincial and local positions. Thirdly, the military
forces were organized under the leadership and command of mainlanders.
And finally, the education system was set up in accordance with former
mainland practices by mainland specialists. However, evolutionary
changes soon occurred.
The government's aim was to make Mandarin Chinese the language of
all Chinese in Taiwan, as it had been in mainland China long before the
War, and to weaken the Taiwanese dialects. Soon almost every child had
a minimum of six years of education (increased in 1968 to nine years),
with Mandarin Chinese as the medium of instruction. In the beginning
few Taiwanese qualified as teachers because, under Japanese rule,
Japanese had been the medium of instruction. As the children of
Taiwanese and mainland families went to school together, the Taiwanese
children quickly learned Mandarin, while most mainland children became
familiar with the Taiwan dialect. For the generation in school today,
the difference between mainlander and Taiwanese has lost its
importance. At the same time, more teachers of Taiwanese origin, but
with modern training, have begun to fill first the ranks of elementary,
later of high-school, and now even of university instructors, so that
the end of mainland predominance in the educational system is
foreseeable.
The country is still ruled by the KMT, but although at first hardly
any Taiwanese belonged to the Party, many of the elective jobs and
almost all positions in the provincial government are at present (1969)
in the hands of Taiwanese independents, or KMT members, more of whom
are entering the central government as well. Because military service
is compulsory, the majority of common soldiers are Taiwanese: as career
officers grow older and their sons show little interest in an army
career, more Taiwan-Chinese are occupying higher army positions.
Foreign policy and major political decisions still lie in the hands of
mainland Chinese, but economic power, once monopolized by them, is now
held by Taiwan-Chinese.
This shift gained impetus with the end of American economic aid,
which had tied local businessmen to American industry and thus worked
to the advantage of mainland Chinese, for these had contacts in the
United States, whereas the Taiwan-Chinese had contacts only in Japan.
After the termination of American economic aid, Taiwanese trade with
Japan, the Philippines, and Korea grew in importance and with it the
economic strength of Taiwan-Chinese businessmen. After 1964, Taiwan
became a strong competitor of Hong Kong and Japan in some export
industries, such as electronics and textiles. We can regard Taiwan from
1964 on as occupying the “takeoff” stage, to use Rostow's
terminology—a stage of rapid development of new, principally light and
consumer, industries. There has been a rapid rise of industrial towns
around the major cities, and there are already many factories in the
countryside, even in some villages. Electrification is essentially
completed, and heavy industries, such as fertilizer and assembly plants
and oil refineries, now exist.
This rapid industrialization was accompanied by an unusually fast
development of agriculture. A land-reform program limited land
ownership, reduced rents, and redistributed formerly Japanese-owned
land. This was the program that the Nationalist government had
attempted unsuccessfully to enforce in liberated China after the
Pacific War. It is well known that the abolition of landlordism and the
distribution of land to small farmers do not in themselves improve or
enlarge production. The Joint Council on Rural Reconstruction, on which
American advisers worked with Chinese specialists to devise a system
comparable to American agricultural extension services but possessing
added elements of community development, introduced better seeds, more
and better fertilizers, and numerous other innovations which the
farmers quickly adopted, with the result that the island became
self-supporting, in spite of a steadily growing population (thirteen
million in 1968).
At the same time, the government succeeded in stabilizing the
currency and in eliminating corruption, thus re-establishing public
confidence and security. Good incomes from farming as well as from
industries were invested on the island instead of flowing into foreign
banks. In addition, the population had enough surplus money to buy the
products of the new domestic industries as these appeared. Thus, the
industrialization of Taiwan may be called “industrialization without
tears,” without the suffering, that is, of proletarian masses who
produce objects which they cannot afford for themselves. Today, even
lower middle-class families have television consoles which cost the
equivalent of US $200; they own electric fans and radios; they are
buying Taiwan-produced refrigerators and air conditioners; and more and
more think of buying Taiwan-assembled cars. They encourage their
children to finish high school and to attend college if at all
possible; competition for admission is very strong in spite of the
continuous building of new schools and universities. Education to the
level of the B.A. is of good quality, but for most graduate study
students are still sent abroad. Taiwan complains about the “brain
drain,” as about 93 per cent of its students who go overseas do not
return, but in many fields it has sufficient trained manpower to
continue its development, and in any case there would not be enough
jobs available if all the students returned. Most of these expatriates
would be available to develop mainland China, if conditions there were
to change in a way that would make them compatible with the values with
which these expatriates grew up on Taiwan, or with the Western
democratic values which they absorbed abroad.
Chiang Kai-shek's government still hopes that one day its people
will return to the mainland. This hope has changed from hope of victory
in a civil war to hope of revolutionary developments within Communist
China which might lead to the creation of a more liberal government in
which men with KMT loyalties could find a place. Because they are
Chinese, the present government and, it is believed, the majority of
the people, consider themselves a part of China from which they are
temporarily separated. Therefore they reject the idea, proposed by some
American politicians, that Taiwan should become an independent state.
There are, mainly in the United States and Japan, groups of
Taiwan-Chinese who favour an independent Taiwan, which naturally would
be close to Japan politically and economically. One may agree with
their belief that Taiwan, now larger than many European countries,
could exist and flourish as an independent country; yet few Chinese
will wish to divorce themselves from the world's largest society.
3 Communist China
Both Taiwan and mainland China have developed extremely quickly. The
reasons do not seem to lie solely in the form of government, for the
pre-conditions for a “takeoff” existed in China as early as the 1920's,
if not earlier. That is, the quick development of China could have
started forty years ago but was prevented, primarily for political
reasons. One of the main pre-conditions for quick development is that a
large part of the population is inured to hard and repetitive work. The
Chinese farmer was accustomed to such work; he put more time and energy
into his land than any other farmer. He and his fellows were the
industrial workers of the future: reliable, hard-working, tractable,
intelligent. To train them was easy, and absenteeism was never a
serious problem, as it is in other developing nations. Another
pre-condition is the existence of sufficient trained people to manage
industry. Forty years ago China had enough such men to start
modernization; foreign assistance would have been necessary in some
fields, but only briefly.
Another requirement (at least in the period before radio and
television) is general literacy. Meaningful statistical data on
literacy in China before 1937 are lacking. Some authors remark that
before 1800 probably all upper-class sons and most daughters were
educated, and that men in the middle and even in the lower classes
often had some degree of literacy. In this context “educated” means
that these persons could read classical poetry and essays written in
literary Chinese, which was not the language of daily conversation.
“Literacy,” however, might mean only that a person could read and write
some 600 characters, enough to conduct a business and to read simple
stories. Although newspapers today have a stock of about 6,000
characters, only some 600 characters are commonly used, and a farmer or
worker can manage well with a knowledge of about 100 characters.
Statements to the effect that in 1935 some 70 per cent of all men and
95 per cent of all women were illiterate must include the last category
in these figures. In any case, the literacy program of the Nationalist
government had penetrated the countryside and had reached even outlying
villages before the Pacific War.
The transportation system in China before the war was not highly
developed, but numerous railroads connecting the main industrial
centers did exist, and bus and truck services connected small towns
with the larger centers. What were missing in the pre-war years were
laws to protect the investor, efficient credit facilities, an insurance
system supported by law, and a modern tax structure. In addition, the
monetary system was inflation-prone. Although sufficient capital
probably could have been mobilized within the country, the available
resources either went into foreign banks or were invested in
enterprises providing a quick return.
The failure to capitalize on existing means of development before
the War resulted from the chronic unrest caused by warlordism,
revolutionaries and foreign invaders, which occupied the energies of
the Nationalist government from its establishment to its fall. Once a
stable government free from internal troubles arose, national
development, whether private or socialist, could proceed at a rapid
pace.
Thus, the development of Communist China is not a miracle, possible
only because of its form of government. What is unusual about Communist
China is the fact that it is the only nation possessing a highly
developed culture of its own to have jettisoned it in favour of a
foreign one. What missionaries had dreamed of for centuries and knew
they would never accomplish, Mao Tse-tung achieved; he imposed an
ideology created by Europeans and understandable only in the context of
Central Europe in the nineteenth century. How long his success will
last is uncertain. One school of analysts believes that the friction
between Soviet Russia and Communist China indicates that China's
communism has become Chinese. These men point out that Communist
Chinese practices are often direct continuations of earlier Chinese
practices, customs, and attitudes. And they predict that this trend
will continue, resulting in a form of socialism or communism distinctly
different from that found in any other country. Another school,
however, believes that communism precedes “Sinism,” and that the regime
will slowly eliminate traits which once were typical of China and
replace them with institutions developed out of Marxist thinking. In
any case, for the present, although the Communist government's aim is
to impose communist thought and institutions in the country, typically
Chinese traits are still omnipresent.
Soon after the establishment of the Peking regime, a pact of
friendship and alliance with the Soviet Union was concluded (February
1950), and Soviet specialists and civil and military products poured
into China to speed its development. China had to pay for this
assistance as well as for the loans it received from Russia, but the
application of Russian experience, often involving the duplication of
whole factories, was successful. In a few years, China developed its
heavy industry, just as Russia had done. It should not be forgotten
that Manchuria, as well as other parts of China, had modern heavy
industries long before 1949. The Manchurian factories ceased production
because, when the Russians invaded Manchuria at the end of the war,
they removed the machinery to Russia.
Russian aid to Communist China continued to 1960. Its termination
slowed development briefly but was not disastrous. Russian assistance
was a “shot in the arm,” as stimulating and about as lasting as
American aid to Taiwan or to European countries. The stress laid upon
heavy industry, in imitation of Russia, increased China's military
strength quickly, but the consumer had to wait for goods which would
make his life more enjoyable. One cause of friction in China today
concerns the relative desirability of heavy industry versus consumer
industry, a problem which arose in Russia after the death of Stalin.
China's military strength was first demonstrated in the Korean War
when Chinese armies entered Korea (October 1950). Their successes
contributed to the prestige of the Peking regime at home and abroad,
but they also foreshadowed a conflict with Soviet Russia, which
regarded North Korea as lying within its own sphere of influence.
In the same year, China invaded and conquered Tibet. Tibet, under
Manchu rule until 1911, had achieved a certain degree of independence
thereafter: no republican Chinese regime ever ruled Lhasa. The military
conquest of Tibet is regarded by many as an act of Chinese imperialism,
or colonialism, as the Tibetans certainly did not want to belong to
China or be forced to change their traditional form of government.
Having regarded themselves as subjects of the Manchu but not of the
Chinese, they rose against the communist rulers in March 1959, but
without success.
Chinese control of Tibet, involving the construction of numerous
roads, airstrips, and military installations, as well as differences
concerning the international border, led in 1959 to conflicts with
India, a country which had previously sided with the new China in
international affairs. Indeed, the borders were uncertain and looked
different depending on whether one used Manchu or Indian maps. China's
other border problem was with Burma. Early in 1960 the two countries
concluded a border agreement which ended disputes dating from British
colonial times.
Very early in its existence Communist China assumed control of
Sinkiang, Chinese Central Asia, a large area originally inhabited by
Turkish and Mongolian tribes and states, later conquered by the Manchu,
and then integrated into China in the early nineteenth century. The
communist action was to be expected, although after the Revolution of
1911 Chinese rule over this area had been spotty, and during the
Pacific War some Soviet-inspired hope had existed that Sinkiang might
gain independence, following the example of Outer Mongolia, another
country which had been attached to the Manchu until 1911 and which,
with Russian assistance, had gained its independence from China.
Sinkiang is of great importance to Communist China as the site of large
sources of oil and of atomic industries and testing grounds. The
government has stimulated and often forced Chinese immigration into
Sinkiang, so that the erstwhile Turkish and Mongolian majorities have
become minorities, envious of their ethnic brothers in Soviet Central
Asia who enjoy a much higher standard of living and more freedom.
Inner Mongolia had a brief dream of independence under Japanese
protection during the war. But the majority of the population were
Chinese, and already before the Pacific War, the country had been
divided into three Chinese provinces, of which the Chinese Communists
gained control without delay.
In general, when the Chinese Communists discuss territorial claims,
they appear to seek the restoration of borders that China claimed in
the eighteenth century. Thus, they make occasional remarks about the Hi
area and parts of Eastern Siberia, which the Manchu either lost to the
Russians or claimed as their territory. North Vietnam is probably aware
that Imperial China exercised political rights over Tongking and Annam
(the present-day North and part of South Vietnam). And, treaty or no,
the Sino-Burmese question may be reopened one day, for Burma was
semi-dependent on China under the Manchu.
The build-up of heavy industry enabled China to conduct an
aggressive policy towards the countries surrounding her, but
industrialization had to be paid for, and, as in other countries, it
was basically agriculture that had to create the necessary capital.
Therefore, in June 1950 a land-reform law was promulgated. By October
1952 it had been implemented at an estimated cost of two million human
lives: the landlords. The next step, socialization of the land, began
in 1953.
The co-operative farms were supposed to achieve higher production
than small individual farms. It may be that any farmer, but
particularly the Chinese, is emotionally involved in his crop, in
contrast to the industrial worker, who often is alienated from the
product he makes. Thus the farmer is unwilling to put unlimited energy
and time into working on a farm that does not belong to him. But it may
also be that the application of principles of industrial operation to
agriculture fails because emergencies often occur in farming and are
followed by periods of leisure, whereas in industry steady work is
possible.
In any case, in 1956 strains began to appear in China's economy. In
early 1958 the “Great Leap Forward” was promoted in an attempt to speed
production in all sectors. Soon after, the first communes were created,
against the advise of Russian specialists. The objective of the
communes seems to have been not only the creation of a new
organizational form which would allow the government to exercise more
pressure upon farmers to increase production, but also the correlation
of labor and other needs of industry with agriculture. The communes may
have represented an attempt to set up an organization which could
function independently, even in the event of a governmental breakdown
in wartime. At the same time, the decentralization of industries began
and a people's militia was created. The “back-yard furnaces,” which
produced high-cost iron of low quality, seem to have had a similar
purpose: to teach citizens how to produce iron for armaments in case of
war and enemy occupation, when only guerrilla resistance would be
possible. In the same year, aggressive actions against offshore,
Nationalist-held islands increased. China may have believed that war
with the United States was imminent. Perhaps as a result of Russian
talks with China, a detente followed in 1959, but so too did increased
tension between Russia and China, while the results of the Great Leap
and its policies proved catastrophic. The years 1961-64 provided a
needed respite from the failures of the Great Leap. Farmers regained
limited rights to income from private efforts, and improved farm
techniques such as better seed and the use of fertilizer began to
produce results. China can now feed her population in normal years.
Chinese leaders realize that an improved level of living is
difficult to attain while the birth rate remains high. They have
hesitated to adopt a family-planning policy, which would fly in the
face of Marxist doctrine, although for a short period family planning
was openly recommended. Their most efficient method of limiting the
birth rate has been to recommend postponement of marriage.
First the limitation of private enterprise and business and then the
nationalization of all important businesses following the completion of
land reform deprived many employers as well as small shopkeepers of an
occupation. But the new industries could not absorb all of the labor
that suddenly became available. When rural youth inundated the cities
in search of employment, the government returned the excess urban
population to die countryside and recruited students and other urban
youth to work on farms. Reeducation camps in outlying areas also
provided cheap farm labor.
The problem facing China or any nation that modernizes and
industrializes in the twentieth century can be simply stated.
Nineteenth-century industry needed large masses of workers which only
the rural areas could supply; and, with the development of farming
methods, the countryside could afford to send its youth to the cities.
Twentieth-century industry, on the other hand, needs technicians and
highly qualified personnel, often with college degrees, but few
unskilled workers. China has traditionally employed human labor where
machines would have been cheaper and more efficient, simply because
labor was available and capital was not. But since, with the growth of
modern industry and modern farming, the problem will arise again, the
policy of employing urban youth on farms is shortsighted.
The labor force also increased as a result of the “liberation” of
women, in which the marriage law of April 1950 was the first step.
Nationalist China had earlier created a modern and liberal marriage
law; moreover, women were never the slaves that they have sometimes
been painted. In many parts of China, long before the Pacific War,
women worked in the fields with their husbands. Elsewhere they worked
in secondary agricultural industries (weaving, preparation of food
conserves, home industries, and even textile factories) and provided
supplementary income for their families. All that “liberation” in 1950
really meant was that women had to work a full day as their husbands
did, and had, in addition, to do house work and care for their children
much as before. The new marriage law did, indeed, make both partners
equal; it also made it easier for men to divorce their wives, political
incompatibility becoming a ground for divorce.
The ideological justification for a new marriage law was the
desirability of destroying the traditional Chinese family and its
economic basis because a close family, and all the more an extended
family or a clan, could obviously serve as a center of resistance. Land
collectivization and the nationalization of business destroyed the
economic basis of families. The “liberation” of women brought them out
of the house and made it possible for the government to exploit
dissension between husband and wife, thereby increasing its control
over the family. Finally, the new education system, which indoctrinated
all children from nursery to the end of college, separated children
from parents, thus undermining parental control and enabling the state
to intimidate parents by encouraging their children to denounce their
“deviations.” Sporadic efforts to dissolve the family completely by
separating women from men in communes—recalling an attempt made almost
a century earlier by the T'ai-p'ing—were unsuccessful.
The best formula for a revolution seems to involve turning youth
against its elders, rather than turning one class against another. Not
all societies have a class system so clear-cut that class antagonism is
effective. On the other hand, Chinese youth, in its opposition to the
“establishment,” to conservatism, to traditional religion, to blind
emulation of Western customs and institutions, to the traditional
family structure and the position of women, had hopes that communism
would eradicate the specific “evil” which each individual wanted
abolished. Mao and his followers had once been such rebellious youths,
but by the 1960's they were mostly old men and a new youth had
appeared, a generation of revolutionaries for whom the “old regime” was
dim history, not reality. In the struggle between Mao and Liu
Shao-ch'i, which became increasingly apparent in 1966, Mao tried to
retain his power by mobilizing young people as “Red Guards” and by
inciting them to make the “Great Proletarian Revolution.” The motives
behind the struggle are diverse. It is on the one hand a conflict of
persons contending for power, but there are also disagreements over
theory: for example, should China's present generation toil to make
possible a better life only for the next generation, or should it enjoy
the fruits of its labor, after its many years of suffering? Mao opposes
such “weakening” and favours a new generation willing to endure
hardships, as he did in his youth. There is also a question whether the
Chinese Communist Party under the banner of Maoism should replace the
Russian party, establish Mao as the fourth founder after Marx, Lenin,
and Stalin, and become the leader of world communism, or whether it
should collaborate with the Russian party, at least temporarily, and
thus ensure China Russian support. When, however, Chinese youth was
summoned to take up the fight for Mao and his group, forces were loosed
which could not be controlled. Following independent action by youth
groups similar in nature to youth revolts in Western countries, the
power and prestige of older leaders suffered. Even now (1969) it is
impossible to re-establish unity and order; the Mao and Liu groups
still oppose each other, and local factions have arisen. Violent
confrontations, often resulting in hundreds of deaths, occur in many
provinces. The regime is no longer so strong and unified as it was
before 1966, although its end is not in sight. Quite possibly
far-reaching changes may occur in the future.
Three factors will probably influence the future of China. First,
the emergence of neo-communism, as in Czechoslovakia in 1968, in an
attempt to soften traditional communist practice. Second, the outcome
of the war in Vietnam. Will China be able to continue its
eighteenth-century dream of direct or indirect domination of South-east
Asia? Will North Vietnam detach itself from China and attach itself
more closely to Russia? Will Russia and China continue to create
separate spheres of influence in Asia, Africa, and South America? The
first factor depends on developments inside China, the second on events
outside, and at least in part on decisions in the United States, Japan,
and Europe.
The third factor has to do with human nature. One may justifiably
ask whether the change in human personality which Chinese communism has
attempted to achieve is possible, let alone desirable. Studies of
animals and of human beings have demonstrated a tendency to identify
with a territory, with property, and with kin. Can the Chinese
eradicate this tendency? The Chinese have been family-centered and
accustomed to subordinating their individual inclinations to the
requirements of family and neighborhood. But beyond these established
frameworks they have been individualistic and highly idiosyncratic at
all times. Under the communist regime, however, the government is
omnipresent, and people must toe the official line. One senses the
tragedy that affects well-known scholars, writers and poets, who must
degrade themselves, their work, their past and their families in order
to survive. They may hope for comprehension of their actions, but
nonetheless they must suffer shame. Will the present government change
the minds of these men and eradicate their feelings?
Communist China has made great progress, no doubt. Soon it may equal
other developed nations. But its progress has been achieved at an
unnecessary cost in human lives and happiness.
That the regime is no longer so strong and unified as it was before
1966 does not mean that its end is in sight. Far-reaching changes may
occur in the near future. Public opinion is impressed with mainland
China's progress, as the world usually is with strong nations. And
public opinion is still unimpressed by the achievements of Taiwan and
has hardly begun to change its attitude toward the government of the
“Republic of China.” To the historian and the sociologist, the
experience of Taiwan indicates that China, if left alone and freed from
ideological pressures, could industrialize more quickly than any other
presently underdeveloped nation. Taiwan offers a model with which to
compare mainland China.
NOTES AND REFERENCES
The following notes and references are intended to help the
interested reader. They draw his attention to some more specialized
literature in English, and occasionally in French and German. They also
indicate for the more advanced reader the sources for some of the
interpretations of historical events. As such sources are most often
written in Chinese or Japanese and, therefore, inaccessible to most
readers, only brief hints and not full bibliographical data are given.
The specialists know the names and can easily find details in the
standard bibliographies. The general reader will profit most from the
bibliography on Chinese history published each year in the Journal
of Asian Studies. These Notes do not mention the original Chinese
sources which are the factual basis of this book.
Chapter One
p. 7: Reference is made here to the T'ung-chien kang-mu and
its translation by de Mailla (1777-85). Criticism by O. Franke, Ku
Chieh-kang and his school, also by G. Haloun.
p. 8: For the chronology, I rely here upon Ijima Tadao and my own
research. Excavations at Chou-k'ou-tien still continue and my account
should be taken as very preliminary. An earlier analysis is given by E.
von Eickstedt (Rassendynamik von Ostasien, Berlin 1944). For the
following periods, the best general study is still J.G. Andersson,
Researches into the Prehistory of the Chinese, Stockholm 1943. A
great number of new findings has been made recently, but no
comprehensive analysis in a Western language is available.
p. 9: Comparison with Ainu has been made by Weidenreich. The theory
of desiccation of Asia is not the Huntington theory, but I rely here
upon arguments by J.G. Andersson and Sven Hedin.
p. 10. The earlier theories of R. Heine-Geldern have been used here.
p. 11: This is a summary of my own theories. Concerning the Tungus
tribes, K. Jettmar (Wiener Beitraege zur Kulturgeschichte, vol.
9, 1952, p. 484f and later studies) has proposed a more refined theory;
other parts of the theory, as far as it is concerned with conditions in
Central Asia, have been modified by F. Kussmaul (in: Tribus,
vol. 1952-3, pp. 305-60). Archaeological data from Central Asia have
been analysed again by K. Jettmar (in: The Museum of Far Eastern
Antiquities, Bulletin No. 23, 1951). The discussion on
domestication of large animals relies on the studies by C.O. Sauer, H.
von Wissmann, Menghin, Amschler, Flohr and, most recently, F. Han[vc]ar
(in: Saeculum, vol. 10, 1959, pp. 21-37 with further
literature), and also on my own research.
p. 12: An analysis of the situation in the South according to
Western and Chinese studies is found in H.J. Wiens, China's March
toward the Tropics, Hamden 1954. Much further work is now published
by Ling Shun-sheng, Rui Yi-fu and other anthropologists in Taipei. The
best analysis of denshiring in the Far East is still the book by K.J.
Pelzer, Population and Land Utilization, New York 1941. The
anthropological theories on this page are my own, influenced by ideas
of R. Heine-Geldern and Gordon Luce.
p. 14: Sociological theory, as developed by R. Thurnwald and others,
has been used as a theoretical tool here, together with observations by
A. Credner and H. Bernatzik. Concerning rice in Yang-shao see R.
Heine-Geldern in Anthropos, vol. 27, p. 595.
p. 15: Wu Chin-ting defended the local origin of Yang-shao; T.J.
Arne, J.G. Andersson and many others suggested Western influences. Most
recently R. Heine-Geldern elaborated this theory. The allusion to
Indo-Europeans refers to the studies by G. Haloun and others concerning
the Ta-Hsia, the later Yueeh-chih, and the Tocharian problem.
p. 16: R. Heine-Geldern proposed a “Pontic migration”. Yin
Huan-chang discussed most recently Lung-shan culture and the
mound-dwellers.
p. 17: The original Chu-shu chi-nien version of the stories
about Yao has been accepted here, together with my own research and the
studies by B. Karlgren, M. Loehr, G. Haloun, E.H. Minns and others
concerning the origin and early distribution of bronze and the animal
style. Smith families or tribes are well known from Central Asia, but
also from India and Africa (see W. Ruben, Eisenschmiede und Daemonen
in Indien, Leiden 1939, for general discussion).—For a discussion
of the Hsia see E. Erkes.
Chapter Two
p. 19: The discussion in this chapter relies mainly upon the Anyang
excavation reports and the studies by Tung Tso-pin and, most strongly,
Ch'en Meng-chia. In English, the best work is still H.G. Creel, The
Birth of China, London 1936 and his more specialized Studies in
Early Chinese Culture, Baltimore 1937.
p. 20: The possibility of a “megalithic” culture in the Far East has
often been discussed, by O. Menghin, R. Heine-Geldern, Cheng Te-k'un,
Ling Shun-sheng and others. Megaliths occur mainly in South-East Asia,
southern China, Korea and Japan.—Teng Ch'u-min and others believe that
silk existed already in the time of Yang-shao.
p. 21: Kuo Mo-jo believes, that the Shang already used a real plough
drawn by animals. The main discussion on ploughs in China is by Hsue
Chung-shu; for general anthropological discussion see E. Werth and H.
Kothe.
p. 22: For the discussion of the T'ao-t'ieh see the research by B.
Karlgren and C. Hentze.
p. 23: I follow here mainly Ch'en Meng-chia, but work by B.
Schindler, C. Hentze, H. Maspero and also my own research has been
considered.
p. 24: I am accepting here a narrow definition of feudalism (see my
Conquerors and Rulers, Leiden 1952).—The division of armies into
“right” and “left” is interesting in the light of the theories
concerning the importance of systems of orientation (Fr. Rock and
others).
p. 25: Here, the work by W. Koppers, O. Spengler, F. Han[vc]ar, V.G.
Childe and many others, concerning the domestication of the horse and
the introduction of the war-chariot in general, and work by Shih
Chang-ju, Ch'en Meng-chia, O. Maenchen, Uchida Gimpu and others
concerning horses, riding and chariots in China has been used, in
addition to my own research.
p. 26: Concerning the wild animals, I have relied upon Ch'en
Meng-chia, Hsue Chung-shu and Tung Tso-pin.—The discussion as to
whether there was a period of “slave society” (as postulated by Marxist
theory) in China, and when it flourished, is still going on under the
leadership of Kuo Mo-jo and his group. I prefer to differentiate
between slaves and serfs, and relied for factual data upon texts from
oracle bones, not upon historical texts.—The problem of Shang
chronology is still not solved, in spite of extensive work by Liu
Ch'ao-yang, Tung Tso-pin and many Japanese and Western scholars. The
old chronology, however, seems to be rejected by most scholars now.
Chapter Three
p. 29: Discussing the early script and language, I refer to the
great number of unidentified Shang characters and, especially, to the
composite characters which have been mentioned often by C. Hentze in
his research; on the other hand, the original language of the Chou may
have been different from classical Chinese, if we can judge from the
form of the names of the earliest Chou ancestors. Problems of substrata
languages enter at this stage. Our first understanding of Chou language
and dialects seems to come through the method applied by P. Serruys,
rather than through the more generally accepted theories and methods of
B. Karlgren and his school.
p. 30: I reject here the statement of classical texts that the last
Shang ruler was unworthy, and accept the new interpretation of Ch'en
Meng-chia which is based upon oracle bone texts,—The most recent
general study on feudalism, and on feudalism in China, is in R.
Coulborn, Feudalism in History, Princeton 1956. Stimulating, but
in parts antiquated, is M. Granet, La Feodalite Chinoise, Oslo
1952. I rely here on my own research. The instalment procedure has been
described by H. Maspero and Ch'i Sz[)u]-ho.
p. 31: The interpretation of land-holding and clans follows my own
research which is influenced by Niida Noboru, Kat[=o] Shigeru and other
Japanese scholars, as well as by G. Haloun.—Concerning the origin of
family names see preliminarily Yang Hsi-mei; much further research is
still necessary. The general development of Chinese names is now
studied by Wolfgang Bauer.—The spread of cities in this period has
been studied by Li Chi, The Formation of the Chinese People,
Cambridge 1928. My interpretation relies mainly upon a study of the
distribution of non-Chinese tribes and data on early cities coming from
excavation reports (see my “Data on the Structure of the Chinese City"
in Economic Development and Cultural Change, 1956, pp. 253-68,
and “The Formation of Chinese Civilization” in Sociologus 7,
1959, pp. 97-112).
p. 32: The work on slaves by T. Pippon, E. Erkes, M. Wilbur, Wan
Kuo-ting, Kuo Mo-jo, Niida Noboru, Kao Nien-chih and others has been
consulted; the interpretation by E.G. Pulleyblank, however, was not
accepted.
p. 33: This interpretation of the “well-field” system relies in part
upon the work done by Hsue Ti-shan, in part upon M. Granet and H.
Maspero, and attempts to utilize insight from general anthropological
theory and field-work mainly in South-East Asia. Other interpretations
have been proposed by Yang Lien-sheng, Wan Kuo-ting, Ch'i Sz[)u]-ho P.
Demieville, Hu Shih, Chi Ch'ao-ting, K.A. Wittfogel, and others Some
authors, such as Kuo Mo-jo, regard the whole system as an utopia, but
believe in an original “village community”.—The characterization of
the Chou-li relies in part upon the work done by Hsue Chung-shu
and Ku Chieh-kang on the titles of nobility, research by Yang K'uan and
textual criticism by B. Karlgren, O. Franke, and again Ku Chieh-kang
and his school.—The discussion on twin cities is intended to draw
attention to its West Asian parallels, the “acropolis” or “ark” city,
as well as to the theories on the difference between Western and Asian
cities (M. Weber) and the specific type of cities in “dual societies"
(H. Boeke).
p. 34: This is a modified form of the Hu Shih theory.—The problem
of nomadic agrarian inter-action and conflict has been studied for a
later period mainly by O. Lattimore. Here, general anthropological
research as well as my own have been applied.
p. 36: The supra-stratification theory as developed by R. Thurnwald
has been used as analytic tool here.
p. 38: For this period, a novel interpretation is presented by R.L.
Walker, The Multi-State System of China, Hamden 1953. For the
concepts of sovereignty, I have used here the Chou-li text and
interpretations based upon this text.
p. 40: For the introduction of iron and the importance of Ch'i, see
Chu Hsi-tsu, Kuo Mo-jo, Yang K'uan, Sekino, Takeshi.—Some scholars (G.
Haloun) tend to interpret attacks such as the one of 660 B.C. as
attacks from outside the borders of China.
p. 41: For Confucius see H.G. Creel, Confucius, New York
1949. I do not, however, follow his interpretation, but rather the
ideas of Hu Shih, O. Franke and others.
p. 42: For “chuen-tz[)u]” and its counterpart “hsiao-jen” see D.
Bodde and Ch'en Meng-chia.
p 43: I rely strongly here upon O. Franke and Ku Chieh-kang and upon
my own work on eclipses.
p. 44: I regard the Confucian traditions concerning the model
emperors of early time as such a falsification. The whole concept of
“abdication” has been analysed by M. Granet. The later ceremony of
abdication was developed upon the basis of the interpretations of
Confucius and has been studied by Ku Chieh-kang and Miyakawa Hisayuki.
Already Confucius' disciple Meng Tz[)u], and later Chuang Tz[)u] and
Han Fei Tz[)u] were against this theory.—As a general introduction to
the philosophy of this period, Y.L. Feng's History of Chinese
Philosophy, London 1937 has still to be recommended, although
further research has made many advances.—My analysis of the role of
Confucianism in society is influenced by theories in the field of
Sociology of religion.
p. 45: The temple in Turkestan was in Khotan and is already
mentioned in the Wei-shu chapter 102. The analysis of the famous
“Book on the transfiguration of Lao Tz[)u] into a Western Barbarian” by
Wang Wei-cheng is penetrating and has been used here. The evaluation of
Lao Tz[)u] and his pupils as against Confucius by J. Needham, in his
Science and Civilization in China, Cambridge 1954 et seq.
(in volume 2) is very stimulating, though necessarily limited to some
aspects only.
p. 47: The concept of wu-wei has often been discussed; some,
such as Masaaki Matsumoto, interpreted the concept purely in social
terms as “refusal of actions carrying worldly estimation”.
p. 49 Further literature concerning alchemy and breathing exercises
is found in J. Needham's book.
Chapter Four
p. 51: I have used here the general framework of R.L. Walker, but
more upon Yang K'uan's studies.
p. 52: The interpretation of the change of myths in this period is
based in part upon the work done by H. Maspero, G. Haloun, and Ku
Chieh-kang. The analysis of legends made by B. Karlgren from a
philological point of view (“Legends and Cults in Ancient China",
The Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, Bulletin No. 18, 1946, pp.
199-365) follows another direction.
p. 53: The discussion on riding involves the theories concerning
horse-nomadic tribes and the period of this way of life. It also
involves the problem of the invention of stirrup and saddle. The saddle
seems to have been used in China already at the beginning of our
period; the stirrup seems to be as late as the fifth century A.D. The
article by A. Kroeber, The Ancient Oikumene as an Historic Culture
Aggregate, Huxley Memorial Lecture for 1945, is very instructive
for our problems and also for its theoretical approach.—The custom of
attracting settlers from other areas in order to have more production
as well as more manpower seems to have been known in India at the same
time.
p. 54: The work done by Kat[=o] Shigeru and Niida Noboru on property
and family has been used here. For the later period, work done by
Makino Tatsumi has also been incorporated.—Literature on the plough
and on iron for implements has been mentioned above. Concerning the
fallow system, I have incorporated the ideas of Kat[=o] Shigeru,
[=O]shima Toshikaza, Hsue Ti-shan and Wan Kuo-ting. Hsue Ti-shan
believes that a kind of 3-field system had developed by this time.
Traces of such a system have been observed in modern China (H.D.
Scholz). For these questions, the translation by N. Lee Swann, Food
and Money in Ancient China, 1959 is very important.
p. 55: For all questions of money and credit from this period down
to modern times, the best brief introduction is by Lien-sheng Yang,
Money and Credit in China, Cambridge 1952. The Introduction to
the Economic History of China, London 1954, by E. Stuart Kirby is
certainly still the best brief introduction into all problems of
Chinese Economic history and contains a bibliography in Western and
Chinese-Japanese languages. Articles by Chinese authors on economic
problems have been translated in E-tu Zen Sun and J. de Francis,
Chinese Social History, Washington 1956.—Data on the size of early
cities have been collected by T. Sekino and Kat[=o] Shigeru.
p. 56: T. Sekino studied the forms of cities. C. Hentze believes
that the city even in the Shang period normally had a square plan.—T.
Sekino has also made the first research on city coins. Such a privilege
and such independence of cities disappear later, but occasionally the
privilege of minting was given to persons of high rank.—K.A.
Wittfogel, Oriental Despotism, New Haven 1957 regards irrigation
as a key economic and social factor and has built up his theory around
this concept. I do not accept his theory here or later. Evidence seems
to point towards the importance of transportation systems rather than
of government-sponsored or operated irrigation systems.—Concerning
steel, we follow Yang K'uan; a special study by J. Needham is under
preparation. Centre of steel production at this time was Wan (later
Nanyang in Honan).—For early Chinese law, the study by A.F.P. Hulsewe,
Remnants of Han Law, Leiden 1955 is the best work in English. He
does not, however, regard Li K'ui as the main creator of Chinese law,
though Kuo Mo-jo and others do. It is obvious, however, that Han law
was not a creation of the Han Chinese alone and that some type of code
must have existed before Han, even if such a code was not written by
the man Li K'ui. A special study on Li was made by O. Franke.
p. 57: In the description of border conditions, research by O.
Lattimore has been taken into consideration.
p. 59: For Shang Yang and this whole period, the classical work in
English is still J.J.L. Duyvendak, The Book of Lord Shang,
London 1928; the translation by Ma Perleberg of The Works of
Kung-sun Lung-tzu, Hongkong 1952 as well as the translation of the
Economic Dialogues in Ancient China: The Kuan-tzu, edited by L.
Maverick, New Haven 1954 have not found general approval, but may serve
as introductions to the way philosophers of our period worked. Han Fei
Tz[)u]; has been translated by W.K. Liao, The Complete Works of Han
Fei Tz[)u], London 1939 (only part 1).
p. 60: Needham does not have such a positive attitude towards Tsou
Yen, and regards Western influences upon Tsou Yen as not too likely.
The discussion on pp. 60-1 follows mainly my own researches.
p. 61: The interpretation of secret societies is influenced by
general sociological theory and detailed reports on later secret
societies. S. Murayama and most modern Chinese scholars stress almost
solely the social element in the so-called “peasant rebellions”.
Chapter Five
p. 63: The analysis of the emergence of Ch'in bureaucracy has
profited from general sociological theory, especially M. Weber (see the
new analysis by R. Bendix, Max Weber, an Intellectual Portrait,
Garden City 1960, p. 117-157). Early administration systems of this
type in China have been studied in several articles in the journal
Yue-kung (vol. 6 and 7).
p. 65: In the discussion of language, I use arguments which have
been brought forth by P. Serruys against the previously generally
accepted theories of B. Karlgren.—For weights and measures I have
referred to T. Sekino, Liu Fu and Wu Ch'eng-lo.
p. 66: For this period, D. Bodde's China's First Unifier,
Leiden 1938 and his Statesman, Patriot, and General in Ancient China, New Haven 1940 remain valuable studies.
Chapter Six
p. 71: The basic historical text for this whole period, the
Dynastic History of the Han Dynasty, is now in part available in
English translation (H.H. Dubs, The History of the Former Han
Dynasty, Baltimore 1938, 3 volumes).
p. 72: The description of the gentry is based upon my own research.
Other scholars define the word “gentry", if applied to China,
differently (some of the relevant studies are discussed in my note in
the Bull. School of Orient. &African Studies, 1955, p. 373 f.).
p. 73: The theory of the cycle of mobility has been brought forth by
Fr. L.K. Hsu and others. I have based my criticism upon a forthcoming
study of Social Mobility in Traditional Chinese Society. The
basic point is not the momentary economic or political power of such a
family, but the social status of the family (Li-shih yen-chiu,
Peking 1955, No. 4, p. 122). The social status was, increasingly,
defined and fixed by law (Ch'ue T'ung-tsu).—The difference in the size
of gentry and other families has been pointed out by a number of
scholars such as Fr. L.K. Hsu, H.T. Fei, O. Lang. My own research seems
to indicate that gentry families, on the average, married earlier than
other families.
p. 74: The Han system of examinations or rather of selection has
been studied by Yang Lien-sheng; and analysis of the social origin of
candidates has been made in the Bull. Chinese Studies, vol. 2,
1941, and 3, 1942.—The meaning of the term “Hundred Families” has been
discussed by W. Eichhorn, Kuo Mo-jo, Ch'en Meng-chia and especially by
Hsue T'ung-hsin. It was later also a fiscal term.
p. 75: The analysis of Hsiung-nu society is based mainly upon my own
research. There is no satisfactory history of these northern
federations available in English. The compilation of W.M. MacGovern,
The Early Empires of Central Asia, Chapel Hill 1939, is now quite
antiquated.—An attempt to construct a model of Central Asian nomadic
social structure has been made by E.E. Bacon, Obok, a Study of
Social Structure in Eurasia, New York 1958, but the model
constructed by B. Vladimirtsov and modified by O. Lattimore remains
valuable.—For origin and early-development of Hsiung-nu society see O.
Maenchen, K. Jettmar, B. Bernstam, Uchida Gimpu and many others.
p. 79: Material on the “classes” (sz[)u] min) will be found
in a forthcoming book. Studies by Ch'ue T'ung-tsu and Tamai Korehiro
are important here. An up-to-date history of Chinese education is still
a desideratum.
p. 80: For Tung Chung-shu, I rely mainly upon O. Franke.—Some
scholars do not accept this “double standard", although we have clear
texts which show that cases were evaluated on the basis of Confucian
texts and not on the basis of laws. In fact, local judges probably only
in exceptional cases knew the text of the law or had the code. They
judged on the basis of “customary law”.
p. 81: Based mainly upon my own research. K.A. Wittfogel,
Oriental Despotism, New Haven 1957, has a different interpretation.
p. 82: Cases in which the Han emperors disregarded the law code were
studied by Y. Hisamura.—I have used here studies published in the
Bull, of Chinese Studies, vol. 2 and 3 and in Toyo gakuho,
vol. 8 and 9, in addition to my own research.
p. 85: On local administration see Kat[=o] Shigeru and Yen
Keng-wang's studies.
p. 86: The problem of the Chinese gold, which will be touched upon
later again, has gained theoretical interest, because it could be used
as a test of M. Lombard's theories concerning the importance of gold in
the West (Annales, Economies, Societes, Civilisations, vol. 12,
Paris 1957, No. 1, p. 7-28). It was used in China from c. 600 B.C. on
in form of coins or bars, but disappeared almost completely from A.D.
200 on, i.e. the period of economic decline (see L.S. Yang, Kat[=o]
Shigeru).—The payment to border tribes occurs many times again in
Chinese history down to recent times; it has its parallel in British
payments to tribes in the North-West Frontier Province in India which
continued even after the Independence.
p. 88: According to later sources, one third of the tributary gifts
was used in the Imperial ancestor temples, one third in the Imperial
mausolea, but one third was used as gifts to guests of the
Emperor.—The trade aspect of the tributes was first pointed but by E.
Parker, later by O. Lattimore, recently by J.K. Fairbank.—The
importance of Chang Ch'ien for East-West contacts was systematically
studied by B. Laufer; his Sino-Iranica, Chicago 1919 is still a
classic.
p. 89: The most important trait which points to foreign trade, is
the occurrence of glass in Chinese tombs in Indo-China and of glass in
China proper from the fifth century B.C. on; it is assumed that this
glass was imported from the Near East, possibly from Egypt (O. Janse,
N. Egami, Seligman).
p. 91: Large parts of the “Discussions” have been translated by
Esson M. Gale, Discourses on Salt and Iron, Leiden 1931; the
continuation of this translation is in Jour. Royal As. Society,
North-China Branch 1934.—The history of eunuchs in China remains
to be written. They were known since at least the seventh century B.C.
The hypothesis has been made that this custom had its origin in Asia
Minor and spread from there (R.F. Spencer in Ciba Symposia, vol.
8, No. 7, 1946 with references).
p. 92: The main source on Wang Mang is translated by C.B. Sargent,
Wang Mang, a translation, Shanghai 1950 and H.H. Dubs, History
of the Former Han Dynasty, vol, 3, Baltimore 1955.
p. 93: This evaluation of the “Old character school” is not
generally accepted. A quite different view is represented by Tjan Tjoe
Som and R.P. Kramers and others who regard the differences between the
schools as of a philological and not a political kind. I follow here
most strongly the Chinese school as represented by Ku Chieh-kang and
his friends, and my own studies.
p. 93: Falsification of texts refers to changes in the Tso-chuan. My
interpretation relies again upon Ku Chieh-kang, and Japanese
astronomical studies (Ijima Tadao), but others, too, admit
falsifications (H.H. Dubs); B. Karlgren and others regard the book as
in its main body genuine. The other text mentioned here is the
Chou-li which is certainly not written by Wang Mang (Jung-chai
Hsue-pi 16), but heavily mis-used by him (in general see S. Uno).
p. 94: I am influenced here by some of H.H. Dubs's studies. For this
and the following period, the work by H. Bielenstein, The
Restoration of the Han Dynasty, Stockholm 1953 and 1959 is the best
monograph.—The “equalization offices” and their influence upon modern
United States has been studied by B. Bodde in the Far Eastern
Quarterly, vol. 5, 1946.
p. 95: H. Bielenstein regards a great flood as one of the main
reasons for the breakdown of Wang Mang's rule.
p. 98: For the understanding of Chinese military colonies in Central
Asia as well as for the understanding of military organization, civil
administration and business, the studies of Lao Kan on texts excavated
in Central Asia and Kansu are of greatest importance.
p. 101: Mazdaistic elements in this rebellion have been mentioned
mainly by H.H. Dubs. Zoroastrism (Zoroaster born 569 B.C.) and Mazdaism
were eminently “political” religions from their very beginning on. Most
scholars admit the presence of Mazdaism in China only from 519 on
(Ishida Mikinosuke, O. Franke). Dubs's theory can be strengthened by
astronomical material.—The basic religious text of this group, the
“Book of the Great Peace” has been studied by W. Eichhorn Maspero and
Ho Ch'ang-ch'uen.
p. 102: For the “church” I rely mainly upon H. Maspero and W.
Eichhorn.
p. 103: I use here concepts developed by Cheng Chen-to and
especially by Jung Chao-tsu.
p. 104: Wang Ch'ung's importance has recently been mentioned again
by J. Needham.
p. 105: These “court poets” have their direct parallel in Western
Asia. This trend, however, did not become typical in China.—On the
general history of paper read A. Kroeber, Anthropology, New York
1948, p. 490f., and Dard Hunter, Paper Making, New York 1947
(2nd ed.).
Chapter Seven
p. 109: The main historical sources for this period have been
translated by Achilles Fang, The Chronicle of the Three Kingdoms, Cambridge, Mass. 1952; the epic which describes this time is C.H.
Brewitt-Taylor, San Kuo, or Romance of the Three Kingdoms,
Shanghai 1925.
p. 112: For problems of migration and settlement in the South, we
relied in part upon research by Ch'en Yuean and Wang Yi-t'ung.
p. 114: For the history of the Hsiung-nu I am relying mainly upon my
own studies.
p. 117: This analysis of tribal structure is based mainly upon my
own research; it differs in detail from the studies by E. Bacon,
Obok, a Study of Social Structure in Eurasia, New York 1958, B.
Vladimirtsov, O. Lattimore's Inner Asian Frontiers of China, New
York 1951 (2nd edit.) and the studies by L.M.J. Schram, The Monguors
of the Kansu-Tibetan Frontier, Philadelphia 1954 and 1957.
p. 118: The use of the word “Huns” does not imply that we identify
the early or the late Hsiung-nu with the European Huns. This question
is still very much under discussion (O. Maenchen, W. Haussig, W.
Henning, and others).
p. 119: For the history of the early Hsien-pi states see the
monograph by G. Schreiber, “The History of the Former Yen Dynasty", in
Monomenta Serica, vol. 14 and 15 (1949-56). For all translations
from Chinese Dynastic Histories of the period between 220 and 960 the
Catalogue of Translations from the Chinese Dynastic Histories for the
Period 220-960, by Hans H. Frankel, Berkeley 1957, is a reliable
guide.
p. 125: For the description of conditions in Turkestan, especially
in Tunhuang, I rely upon my own studies, but studies by A. von Gabein,
L. Ligeti, J.R. Ware, O. Franke and Tsukamoto Zenryu have been used,
too.
p. 133: These songs have first been studied by Hu Shih, later by
Chinese folklorists.
p. 134: For problems of Chinese Buddhism see Arthur F. Wright,
Buddhism in Chinese History, Stanford 1959, with further
bibliography. I have used for this and later periods, in addition to my
own sociological studies, R. Michihata, J. Gernet, and Tamai
Korehiro.—It is interesting that the rise of landowning temples in
India occurred at exactly the same time (R.S. Sharma in Journ. Econ.
and Soc. Hist. Orient, vol. 1, 1958, p. 316). Perhaps even more
interesting, but still unstudied, is the existence of Buddhist temples
in India which owned land and villages which were donated by
contributions from China.—For the use of foreign monks in Chinese
bureaucracies, I have used M. Weber's theory as an interpretative tool.
p. 135: The important deities of Khotan Buddhism are Vai['s]ramana
and Kubera, (research by P. Demieville, R. Stein and others).—Where,
how, and why Hinayana and Mahayana developed as separate sects, is not
yet studied. Also, a sociological analysis of the different Buddhist
sects in China has not even been attempted yet.
p. 136: Such public religious disputations were known also in India.
p. 137: Analysis of the tribal names has been made by L. Bazin.
pp. 138-9: The personality type which was the ideal of the Toba
corresponded closely to the type described by G. Geesemann,
Heroische Lebensform, Berlin 1943.
p. 142: The Toba occur in contemporary Western sources as Tabar,
Tabgac, Tafkac and similar names. The ethnic name also occurs as a
title (O. Pritsak, P. Pelliot, W. Haussig and others).—On the
chuen-t'ien system cf. the article by Wan Kuo-ting in E-tu Zen Sun,
Chinese Social History, Washington 1956, p. 157-184. I also used
Yoshimi Matsumoto and T'ang Ch'ang-ju.—Census fragments from Tunhuang
have been published by L. Giles, Niida Noboru and other Japanese
scholars.
p. 143: On slaves for the earlier time see M. Wilbur, Slavery in
China during the Former Han Dynasty, Chicago 1943. For our period
Wang Yi-t'ung and especially Niida Noboru and Ch'ue T'ung-tsu. I used
for this discussion Niida, Ch'ue and Tamai Korehiro.—For the
pu-ch'ue I used in addition Yang Chung-i, H. Maspero, E. Balazs, W.
Eichhorn. Yang's article is translated in E-tu Zen Sun's book,
Chinese Social History, pp. 142-56.—The question of slaves and
their importance in Chinese society has always been given much
attention by Chinese Communist authors. I believe that a clear
distinction between slaves and serfs is very important.
p. 145: The political use of Buddhism has been asserted for Japan as
well as for Korea and Tibet (H. Hoffmann, Quellen zur Geschichte der
tibetischen Bon-Religion, Mainz 1950, p. 220 f.). A case could be
made for Burma. In China, Buddhism was later again used as a tool by
rulers (see below).
p. 146: The first text in which such problems of state versus church
are mentioned is Mou Tz[)u] (P. Pelliot transl.). More recently, some
of the problems have been studied by R. Michihata and E. Zuercher.
Michihata also studied the temple slaves. Temple families were slightly
different. They have been studied mainly by R. Michihata, J. Gernet and
Wang Yi-t'ung. The information on T'an-yao is mainly in Wei-shu
114 (transl. J. Ware).—The best work on Yuen-kang is now Seiichi
Mizuno and Toshio Nagahiro, Yuen-kang. The Buddhist Cave-Temples of
the Fifth Century A.D. in North China, Kyoto 1951-6, thus far 16
volumes. For Chinese Buddhist art, the work by Tokiwa Daijo and Sekino
Tadashi, Chinese Buddhist Monuments, Tokyo 1926-38, 5 volumes,
is most profusely illustrated.—As a general reader for the whole of
Chinese art, Alexander Soper and L. Sickman's The Art and
Architecture of China, Baltimore 1956 may be consulted.
p, 147: Zenryu Tsukamoto has analysed one such popular,
revolutionary Buddhist text from the fifth century A.D. I rely here for
the whole chapter mainly upon my own research.
p. 150: On the Ephtalites (or Hephtalites) see R. Ghirshman and
Enoki.—The carpet ceremony has been studied by P. Boodberg, and in a
comparative way by L. Olschki, The Myth of Felt, Berkeley 1949.
p. 151: For Yang Chien and his time see now A.F. Wright, “The
Formation of Sui Ideology” in John K. Fairbank, Chinese Thought and
Institutions, Chicago 1957, pp. 71-104.
p. 153: The processes described here, have not yet been thoroughly
analysed. A preliminary review of literature is given by H. Wiens,
China's March towards the Tropics, Hamden 1954. I used Ch'en Yuean,
Wang Yi-t'ung and my own research.
p. 154: It is interesting to compare such hunting parks with the “
paradeisos” (Paradise) of the Near East and with the “Garden of
Eden”.—Most of the data on gardens and manors have been brought
together and studied by Japanese scholars, especially by Kat[=o]
Shigeru, some also by Ho Tzu-ch'uean.—The disappearance of “village
commons” in China should be compared with the same process in Europe;
both processes, however, developed quite differently. The origin of
manors and their importance for the social structure of the Far East
(China as well as Japan) is the subject of many studies in Japan and in
modern China. This problem is connected with the general problem of
feudalism East and West. The manor (chuang: Japanese sho)
in later periods has been studied by Y. Sudo. H. Maspero also devotes
attention to this problem. Much more research remains to be done.
p. 158: This popular rebellion by Sun En has been studied by W.
Eichhorn.
p. 163: On foreign music in China see L.C. Goodrich and Ch'ue
T'ung-tsu, H.G. Farmer, S. Kishibe and others.—Niida Noboru pointed
out that musicians belonged to one of the lower social classes, but had
special privileges because of their close relations to the rulers.
p. 164: Meditative or Ch'an (Japanese: Zen) Buddhism
in this period has been studied by Hu Shih, but further analysis is
necessary.—The philosophical trends of this period have been analysed
by E. Balazs.—Mention should also be made of the
aesthetic-philosophical conversation which was fashionable in the third
century, but in other form still occurred in our period, the so-called
“pure talk” (ch'ing-t'an) (E. Balazs, H. Wilhelm and others).
Chapter Eight
p. 167: For genealogies and rules of giving names, I use my own
research and the study by W. Bauer.
p. 168: For Emperor Wen Ti, I rely mainly upon A.F. Wright's
above-mentioned article, but also upon O. Franke.
p. 169: The relevant texts concerning the T'u-chueeh are available
in French (E. Chavannes) and recently also in German translation (Liu
Mau-tsai, Die chinesischen Nachrichten zur Geschichte der
Ost-T[vu]rken, Wiesbaden 1958, 2 vol.).—The Toeloes are called
T'e-lo in Chinese sources; the T'u-yue-hun are called Aza in Central
Asian sources (P. Pelliot, A. Minorsky, F.W. Thomas, L. Hambis, et
al.). The most important text concerning the T'u-yue-hun had been
translated by Th. D. Caroll, Account of the T'u-yue-hun in the
History of the Chin Dynasty, Berkeley 1953.
p. 171: The transcription of names on this and on the other maps
could not be adjusted to the transcription of the text for technical
reasons.
p. 172: It is possible that I have underestimated the role of Li
Yuean. I relied here mainly upon O. Franke and upon W. Bingham's The
Founding of the T'ang Dynasty, Baltimore 1941.
p. 173: The best comprehensive study of T'ang economy in a Western
language is still E. Balazs's work. I relied, however, strongly upon
Wan Kuo-ting, Yang Chung-i, Kat[=o] Shigeru, J. Gernet, T. Naba, Niida
Noboru, Yoshimi Matsumoto.
pp. 173-4: For the description of the administration I used my own
studies and the work of R. des Rotours; for the military organization I
used Kikuchi Hideo. A real study of Chinese army organization and
strategy does not yet exist. The best detailed study, but for the Han
period, is written by H. Maspero.
p. 174: For the first occurrence of the title tu-tu we used
W. Eichhorn; in the form tutuq the title occurs since 646 in
Central Asia (J. Hamilton).
p. 177: The name T'u-fan seems to be a transcription of Tuepoet
which, in turn, became our Tibet. (J. Hamilton).—The Uighurs are the
Hui-ho or Hui-hu of Chinese sources.
p. 179: On relations with Central Asia and the West see Ho Chien-min
and Hsiang Ta, whose classical studies on Ch'ang-an city life have
recently been strongly criticized by Chinese scholars.—Some authors
(J.K. Rideout) point to the growing influence of eunuchs in this
period.—The sources paint the pictures of the Empress Wu in very dark
colours. A more detailed study of this period seems to be necessary.
p. 180: The best study of “family privileges” (yin) in
general is by E.A. Kracke, Civil Service in Early Sung China,
Cambridge, Mass. 1953.
p. 180-1: The economic importance of organized Buddhism has been
studied by many authors, especially J. Gernet, Yang Lien-sheng, Ch'uean
Han-sheng, K. Tamai and R. Michihata.
p. 182: The best comprehensive study on T'ang prose in English is
still E.D. Edwards, Chinese Prose Literature of the T'ang Period, London 1937-8, 2 vol. On Li T'ai-po and Po Chue-i we have well-written
books by A. Waley, The Poetry and Career of Li Po, London 1951
and The Life and Times of Po Chue-i, London 1950.—On the “free
poem” (tz[)u]), which technically is not a free poem, see A.
Hoffmann and Hu Shih. For the early Chinese theatre, the classical
study is still Wang Kuo-wei's analysis, but there is an almost
unbelievable number of studies constantly written in China and Japan,
especially on the later theatre and drama.
p. 184: Conditions at the court of Hsuean Tsung and the life of Yang
Kui-fei have been studied by Howard Levy and others, An Lu-shan's
importance mainly by E.G. Pulleyblank, The Background of the
Rebellion of An Lu-shan, London 1955.
p. 187: The tax reform of Yang Yen has been studied by K. Hino; the
most important figures in T'ang economic history are Liu Yen (studied
by Chue Ch'ing-yuean) and Lu Chih (754-805; studied by E. Balazs and
others).
pp. 187-8: The conditions at the time of this persecution are well
described by E.O. Reischauer, Ennin's Travels in T'ang China,
New York 1955, on the basis of his Ennin's Diary. The Record of a
Pilgrimage to China, New York 1955. The persecution of Buddhism has
been analysed in its economic character by Niida Noboru and other
Japanese scholars.—Metal statues had to be delivered to the Salt and
Iron Office in order to be converted into cash; iron statues were
collected by local offices for the production of agricultural
implements; figures in gold, silver or other rare materials were to be
handed over to the Finance Office. Figures made of stone, clay or wood
were not affected (Michihata).
p. 189: It seems important to note that popular movements are often
not led by simple farmers of members of the lower classes. There are
other salt merchants and persons of similar status known as leaders.
p. 190: For the Sha-t'o, I am relying upon my own research. Tatars
are the Ta-tan of the Chinese sources. The term is here used in a
narrow sense.
Chapter Nine
p. 195: Many Chinese and Japanese authors have a new period begin
with the early (Ch'ien Mu) or the late tenth century (T'ao Hsi-sheng,
Li Chien-nung), while others prefer a cut already in the Middle of the
T'ang Dynasty (Teng Ch'u-min, Naito Torajiro). For many Marxists, the
period which we called “Modern Times” is at best a sub-period within a
larger period which really started with what we called “Medieval
China”.
p. 196: For the change in the composition of the gentry, I am using
my own research.—For clan rules, clan foundations, etc., I used D.C.
Twitchett, J. Fischer, Hu Hsien-chin, Ch'ue T'ung-tsu, Niida Noboru and
T. Makino. The best analysis of the clan rules is by Wang Hui-chen in
D.S. Nivison, Confucianism in Action, Stanford 1959, p.
63-96.—I do not regard such marriage systems as “survivals” of ancient
systems which have been studied by M. Granet and systematically
analysed by C. Levy-Strauss in his Les structures elementaires de la
parente, Paris 1949, pp. 381-443. In some cases, the reasons for
the establishment of such rules can still be recognized.—A detailed
study of despotism in China still has to be written. K.A. Wittfogel's
Oriental Despotism, New Haven 1957 does not go into the necessary
detailed work.
p. 197: The problem of social mobility is now under study, after
preliminary research by K.A. Wittfogel, E. Kracke, myself and others.
E. Kracke, Ho Ping-ti, R.M. Marsh and I are now working on this
topic.—For the craftsmen and artisans, much material has recently been
collected by Chinese scholars. I have used mainly Li Chien-nung and
articles in Li-shih yen-chiu 1955, No. 3 and in Mem. Inst.
Orient. Cult. 1956.—On the origin of guilds see Kat[=o] Shigeru; a
general study of guilds and their function has not yet been made
(preliminary work by P. Maybon, H.B. Morse, J. St. Burgess, K.A.
Wittfogel and others). Comparisons with Near-Eastern guilds on the one
hand and with Japanese guilds on the other, are quite interesting but
parallels should not be over-estimated. The tong of U.S.
Chinatowns (tang in Mandarin) are late and organizations of
businessmen only (S. Yokoyama and Laai Yi-faai). They are not the same
as the hui-kuan.
p. 198: For the merchants I used Ch'ue T'ung-tsu, Sung Hsi and Wada
Kiyoshi.—For trade, I used extensively Ch'uean Han-sheng and J.
Kuwabara.—On labour legislation in early modern times I used Ko
Ch'ang-chi and especially Li Chien-nung, also my own studies.—On
strikes I used Kat[=o] Shigeru and modern Chinese authors.—The problem
of “vagrants” has been taken up by Li Chien-nung who always refers to
the original sources and to modern Chinese research.—The growth of
cities, perhaps the most striking event in this period, has been
studied for the earlier part of our period by Kat[=o] Shigeru. Li
Chien-nung also deals extensively with investments in industry and
agriculture. The problem as to whether China would have developed into
an industrial society without outside stimulus is much discussed by
Marxist authors in China.
p. 199: On money policy see Yang Lien-sheng, Kat[=o] Shigeru and
others.
p. 200: The history of one of the Southern Dynasties has been
translated by Ed. H. Schafer, The Empire of Min, Tokyo 1954;
Schafer's annotations provide much detail for the cultural and economic
conditions of the coastal area.—For tea and its history, I use my own
research; for tea trade a study by K. Kawakami and an article in the
Frontier Studies, vol. 3, 1943.—Salt consumption according to H.T.
Fei, Earthbound China, 1945, p. 163.
p. 201: For salt I used largely my own research. For porcelain
production Li Chien-nung and other modern articles.—On paper, the
classical study is Th. F. Carter, The Invention of Printing in China, New York 1925 (a revised edition now published by L.C. Goodrich).
p. 202: For paper money in the early period, see Yang Lien-sheng,
Money and Credit in China, Cambridge, Mass., 1952. Although the
origin of paper money seems to be well established, it is interesting
to note that already in the third century A.D. money made of paper was
produced and was burned during funeral ceremonies to serve as financial
help for the dead. This money was, however, in the form of coins.—On
iron money see Yang Lien-sheng; I also used an article in Tung-fang
tsa-chih, vol. 35, No. 10.
p. 203: For the Kitan (Chines: Ch'i-tan) and their history see K.A.
Wittfogel and Feng Chia-sheng, History of Chinese Society. Liao,
Philadelphia 1949.
p. 204: For these dynasties, I rely upon my own research.—Niida
Noboru and Kat[=o] Shigeru have studied adoption laws; our specific
case has in addition been studied by M. Kurihara. This system of
adoptions is non-Chinese and has its parallels among Turkish tribes (A.
Kollantz, Abdulkadir Inan, Osman Turan).
p. 207: For the persecution I used K. Tamai and my own research.
p. 211: This is based mainly upon my own research.—The remark on
tax income is from Ch'uean Han-sheng.
p. 212: Fan Chung-yen has been studied recently by J. Fischer and D.
Twitchett, but these notes on price policies are based upon my own
work.—I regard the statement, that it was the gentry which prevented
the growth of an industrial society—a statement which has often been
made before—as preliminary, and believe that further research,
especially in the growth of cities and urban institutions may lead to
quite different explanations.—On estate management I relied on Y.
Sudo's work.
p. 213: Research on place names such as mentioned here, has not yet
been systematically done.—On i-chuang I relied upon the work by
T. Makino and D. Twitchett.—This process of tax-evasion has been used
by K.A. Wittfogel (1938) to construct a theory of a crisis cycle in
China. I do not think that such far-reaching conclusions are warranted.
p. 214: This “law” was developed on the basis of Chinese materials
from different periods as well as on materials from other parts of
Asia.—In the study of tenancy, cases should be studied in which
wealthier farmers rent additional land which gets cultivated by farm
labourers. Such cases are well known from recent periods, but have not
yet been studied in earlier periods. At the same time, the problem of
farm labourers should be investigated. Such people were common in the
Sung time. Research along these lines could further clarify the
importance of the so-called “guest families” (k'o-hu) which were
alluded to in these pages. They constituted often one third of the
total population in the Sung period. The problem of migration and
mobility might also be clarified by studying the k'o-hu.
p. 215: For Wang An-shih, the most comprehensive work is still H.
Williamson's Wang An-shih, London 1935, 3 vol., but this work in
no way exhausts the problems. We have so much personal data on Wang
that a psychological study could be attempted; and we have since
Williamson's time much deeper insight into the reforms and theories of
Wang. I used, in addition to Williamson, O. Franke, and my own
research.
p. 216: Based mainly upon Ch'ue T'ung-tsu.—For the social
legislation see Hsue I-t'ang; for economic problems I used Ch'uean
Han-sheng, Ts'en Chung-mien and Liu Ming-shu.—Most of these relief
measures had their precursors in the T'ang period.
p. 217: It is interesting to note that later Buddhism gave up its
“social gospel” in China. Buddhist circles in Asian countries at the
present time attempt to revive this attitude.
p. 218: For slaughtering I used A. Hulsewe; for greeting R.
Michihata; on law Ch'ue T'ung-tsu; on philosophy I adapted ideas from
Chan Wing-sit.
p. 219: A comprehensive study of Chu Hsi is a great desideratum.
Thus far, we have in English mainly the essays by Feng Yu-lan (transl.
and annotated by D. Bodde) in the Harvard Journal of Asiat. Stud., vol. 7, 1942. T. Makino emphasized Chu's influence upon the Far East,
J. Needham his interest in science.
p. 220: For Su Tung-p'o as general introduction see Lin Yutang,
The Gay Genius. The Life and Times of Su Tung-p'o, New York
1947.—For painting, I am using concepts of A. Soper here.
p. 222: For this period the standard work is K.A. Wittfogel and Feng
Chia-sheng, History of Chinese Society, Liao, Philadelphia
1949.—Po-hai had been in tributary relations with the dynasties of
North China before its defeat, and resumed these from 932 on; there
were even relations with one of the South Chinese states; in the same
way, Kao-li continuously played one state against the other (M. Rogers
et al.).
p. 223: On the Kara-Kitai see Appendix to Wittfogel-Feng.
p. 228: For the Hakka, I relied mainly upon Lo Hsiang-lin; for Chia
Ssu-tao upon H. Franke.
p. 229: The Juchen (Jurchen) are also called Nue-chih and Nue-chen,
but Juchen seems to be correct (Studia Serica, vol. 3, No. 2).
Chapter Ten
p. 233: I use here mainly Meng Ssu-liang, but also others, such as
Chue Ch'ing-yuean and Li Chien-nung.—The early political developments
are described by H.D. Martin, The Rise of Chingis Khan and his
Conquest of North China, Baltimore 1950.
p. 236: I am alluding here to such Taoist sects as the Cheng-i-chiao
(Sun K'o-k'uan and especially the study in Kita Aziya gakuh[=o],
vol. 2).
pp. 236-7: For taxation and all other economic questions I have
relied upon Wan Kuo-ting and especially upon H. Franke. The first part
of the main economic text is translated and annotated by H.F.
Schurmann, Economic Structure of the Yuean Dynasty, Cambridge,
Mass., 1956.
p. 237: On migrations see T. Makino and others.—For the system of
communications during the Mongol time and the privileges of merchants,
I used P. Olbricht.
p. 238: For the popular rebellions of this time, I used a study in
the Bull. Acad. Sinica, vol. 10, 1948, but also Meng Ssu-liang
and others.
p. 239: On the White Lotus Society (Pai-lien-hui) see note to
previous page and an article by Hagiwara Jumpei.
p. 240: H. Serruys, The Mongols in China during the Hung-wu
Period, Bruges 1959, has studied in this book and in an article the
fate of isolated Mongol groups in China after the breakdown of the
dynasty.
pp. 241-2: The travel report of Ch'ang-ch'un has been translated by
A. Waley, The Travels of an Alchemist, London 1931.
p. 242: Hsi-hsiang-chi has been translated by S.I. Hsiung.
The Romance of the Western Chamber, London 1935. All important
analytic literature on drama and theatre is written by Chinese and
Japanese authors, especially by Yoshikawa Kojiro.—For Bon and early
Lamaism, I used H. Hoffmann.
p. 243: Lamaism in Mongolia disappeared later, however, and was
reintroduced in the reformed form (Tsong-kha-pa, 1358-1419) in the
sixteenth century. See R.J. Miller, Monasteries and Culture Change
in Inner Mongolia, Wiesbaden 1959.
p. 245: Much more research is necessary to clarify Japanese-Chinese
relations in this period, especially to determine the size of trade.
Good material is in the article by S. Iwao. Important is also S. Sakuma
and an article in Li-shih yen-chiu 1955, No. 3. For the loss of
coins, I relied upon D. Brown.
p. 246: The necessity of transports of grain and salt was one of the
reasons for the emergence of the Hsin-an and Hui-chou merchants. The
importance of these developments is only partially known (studies
mainly by H. Fujii and in Li-shih-yen-chiu 1955, No. 3). Data
are also in an unpublished thesis by Ch. Mac Sherry, The Impairment
of the Ming Tributary System, and in an article by Wang Ch'ung-wu.
p. 247: The tax system of the Ming has been studied among others by
Liang Fang-chung. Yoshiyuki Suto analysed the methods of tax evasion in
the periods before the reform. For the land grants, I used Wan
Kuo-ting's data.
p. 248: Based mainly upon my own research. On the progress of
agriculture wrote Li Chien-nung and also Kat[=o] Shigeru and others.
p. 250: I believe that further research would discover that the
“agrarian revolution” was a key factor in the economic and social
development of China. It probably led to another change in dietary
habits; it certainly led to a greater labour input per person, i.e. a
higher number of full working days per year than before. It may be—but
only further research can try to show this—that the “agrarian
revolution” turned China away from technology and industry.—On cotton
and its importance see the studies by M. Amano, and some preliminary
remarks by P. Pelliot.
pp. 250-1: Detailed study of Central Chinese urban centres in this
time is a great desideratum. My remarks here have to be taken as very
preliminary. Notice the special character of the industries
mentioned!—The porcelain centre of Ching-te-chen was inhabited by
workers and merchants (70-80 per cent of population); there were more
than 200 private kilns.—On indented labour see Li Chien-nung, H. Iwami
and Y. Yamane.
p. 253: On pien-wen I used R. Michihata, and for this general
discussion R. Irvin, The Evolution of a Chinese Novel,
Cambridge, Mass., 1953, and studies by J. Jaworski and J. Pru[vs]ek.
Many texts of pien-wen and related styles have been found in
Tunhuang and have been recently republished by Chinese scholars.
p. 254: Shui-hu-chuan has been translated by Pearl Buck,
All Men are Brothers. Parts of Hsi-yu-chi have been
translated by A. Waley, Monkey, London 1946. San-kuo yen-i
is translated by C.H. Brewitt-Taylor, San Kuo, or Romance of the
Three Kingdoms, Shanghai 1925 (a new edition just published). A
purged translation of Chin-p'ing-mei is published by Fr. Kuhn Chin
P'ing Mei, New York 1940.
p. 255: Even the “murder story” was already known in Ming time. An
example is R.H. van Gulik, Dee Gong An. Three Murder Cases solved by
Judge Dee, Tokyo 1949.
p. 256: For a special group of block-prints see R.H. van Gulik,
Erotic Colour Prints of the Ming Dynasty, Tokyo 1951. This book is
also an excellent introduction into Chinese psychology.
p. 257: Here I use work done by David Chan.
p. 258: I use here the research of J.J.L. Duyvendak; the reasons for
the end of such enterprises, as given here, may not exhaust the
problem. It may not be without relevance that Cheng came from a Muslim
family. His father was a pilgrim (Bull. Chin. Studies, vol. 3,
pp. 131-70). Further research is desirable.—Concerning folk-tales, I
use my own research. The main Buddhist tales are the Jataka
stories. They are still used by Burmese Buddhists in the same context.
p. 260: The Oirat (Uyrat, Ojrot, Oeloet) were a confederation of
four tribal groups: Khosud, Dzungar, Doerbet and Turgut.
p. 261: I regard this analysis of Ming political history as
unsatisfactory, but to my knowledge no large-scale analysis has been
made.—For Wang Yang-ming I use mainly my own research.
p. 262: For the coastal salt-merchants I used Lo Hsiang-lin's work.
p. 263: On the rifles I used P. Pelliot. There is a large literature
on the use of explosives and the invention of cannons, especially L.C.
Goodrich and Feng Chia-sheng in Isis, vol. 36, 1946 and 39,
1948; also G. Sarton, Li Ch'iao-p'ing, J. Pru[vs]ek, J. Needham, and M.
Ishida; a comparative, general study is by K. Huuri, Studia
Orientalia vol. 9, 1941.—For the earliest contacts of Wang with
Portuguese, I used Chang Wei-hua's monograph.—While there is no
satisfactory, comprehensive study in English on Wang, for Lu
Hsiang-shan the book by Huang Siu-ch'i, Lu Hsiang-shan, a
Twelfth-century Chinese Idealist Philosopher, New Haven 1944, can
be used.
p. 264: For Tao-yen, I used work done by David Chan.—Large parts of
the Yung-lo ta-tien are now lost (Kuo Po-kung, Yuean T'ung-li
studied this problem).
p. 265: Yen-ta's Mongol name is Altan Qan (died 1582), leader of the
Tuemet. He is also responsible for the re-introduction of Lamaism into
Mongolia (1574).—For the border trade I used Hou Jen-chih; for the
Shansi bankers Ch'en Ch'i-t'ien and P. Maybon. For the beginnings of
the Manchu see Fr. Michael, The Origins of Manchu Rule in China,
Baltimore 1942.
p. 266: M. Ricci's diary (Matthew Ricci, China in the Sixteenth
Century. The Journals of M. Ricci, transl. by L.J. Gallagher, New
York 1953) gives much insight into the life of Chinese officials in
this period. Recently, J. Needham has tried to show that Ricci and his
followers did not bring much which was not already known in China, but
that they actually attempted to prevent the Chinese from learning about
the Copernican theory.
p. 267: For Coxinga I used M. Eder's study.—The Szechwan rebellion
was led by Chang Hsien-chung (1606-1647); I used work done by James B.
Parsons. Cheng T'ien-t'ing, Sun Yueh and others have recently published
the important documents concerning all late Ming peasant
rebellions.—For the Tung-lin academy see Ch. O. Hucker in J.K.
Fairbank, Chinese Thought and Institutions, Chicago 1957. A
different interpretation is indicated by Shang Yueeh in Li-shih
yen-chiu 1955, No. 3.
p. 268: Work on the “academies” (shu-yuean) in the earlier time is
done by Ho Yu-shen.
pp. 273-4: Based upon my own, as yet unfinished research.
p. 274: The population of 1953 as given here, includes Chinese
outside of mainland China. The population of mainland China was 582.6
millions. If the rate of increase of about 2 per cent per year has
remained the same, the population of mainland China in 1960 may be
close to 680 million. In general see P.T. Ho. Studies on the
Population of China, 1368-1953, Cambridge, Mass., 1960.
p. 276: Based upon my own research.—A different view of the
development of Chinese industry is found in Norman Jacobs, Modern
Capitalism and Eastern Asia, Hong Kong 1958. Jacobs attempted a
comparison of China with Japan and with Europe. Different again is
Marion Levy and Shih Kuo-heng, The Rise of the Modern Chinese
Business Class, New York 1949. Both books are influenced by the
sociological theories of T. Parsons.
p. 277: The Dzungars (Dsunghar; Chun-ko-erh) are one of the four
Oeloet (Oirat) groups. I am here using studies by E. Haenisch and W.
Fuchs.
p. 278: Tibetan-Chinese relations have been studied by L. Petech,
China and Tibet in the Early 18th Century, Leiden 1950. A
collection of data is found in M.W. Fisher and L.E. Rose, England,
India, Nepal, Tibet, China, 1765-1958, Berkeley 1959. For
diplomatic relations and tributary systems of this period, I referred
to J.K. Fairbank and Teng Ssu-yue.
p. 279: For Ku Yen-wu, I used the work by H. Wilhelm.—A man who
deserves special mention in this period is the scholar Huang Tsung-hsi
(1610-1695) as the first Chinese who discussed the possibility of a
non-monarchic form of government in his treatise of 1662. For him see
Lin Mou-sheng, Men and Ideas, New York 1942, and especially W.T.
de Bary in J.K. Fairbank, Chinese Thought and Institutions,
Chicago 1957.
pp. 280-1: On Liang see now J.R. Levenson, Liang Ch'i-ch'ao and
the Mind of Modern China, London 1959.
p. 282: It should also be pointed out that the Yung-cheng emperor
was personally more inclined towards Lamaism.—The Kalmuks are largely
identical with the above-mentioned Oeloet.
p. 286: The existence of hong is known since 1686, see P'eng
Tse-i and Wang Chu-an's recent studies. For details on foreign trade
see H.B. Morse, The Chronicles of the East India Company Trading to
China 1635-1834, Oxford 1926, 4 vols., and J.K. Fairbank, Trade
and Diplomacy on the China Coast. The Opening of the Treaty Ports,
1842-1854, Cambridge, Mass., 1953, 2 vols.—For Lin I used G.W.
Overdijkink's study.
p. 287: On customs read St. F. Wright, Hart and the Chinese
Customs, Belfast 1950.
p. 288: For early industry see A. Feuerwerker, China's Early
Industrialization: Sheng Hsuan-huai (1844-1916), Cambridge, Mass.,
1958.
p. 289: The Chinese source materials for the Mohammedan revolts have
recently been published, but an analysis of the importance of the
revolts still remains to be done.—On T'ai-p'ing much has been
published, especially in the last years in China, so that all documents
are now available. I used among other studies, details brought out by
Lo Hsiang-lin and Jen Yu-wen.
p. 291: For Tseng Kuo-fan see W.J. Hail, Tseng Kuo-fan and the
T'ai-p'ing Rebellion, New Haven 1927, but new research on him is
about to be published.—The Nien-fei had some connection with the White
Lotus, and were known since 1814, see Chiang Siang-tseh, The Nien
Rebellion, Seattle 1954.
p. 292: Little is known about Salars, Dungans and Yakub Beg's
rebellion, mainly because relevant Turkish sources have not yet been
studied. On Salars see L. Schram, The Monguors of Kansu,
Philadelphia 1954, p. 23 and P. Pelliot; on Dungans see I. Grebe.
p. 293: On Tso Tsung-t'ang see G. Ch'en, Tso Tung T'ang, Pioneer
Promotor of the Modern Dockyard and Woollen Mill in China, Peking
1938, and Yenching Journal of Soc. Studies, vol. I.
p. 294: For the T'ung-chih period, see now Mary C. Wright, The
Last Stand of Chinese Conservativism. The T'ung-chih Restoration,
1862-1874, Stanford 1957.
p. 295: Ryukyu is Chinese: Liu-ch'iu; Okinawa is one of the islands
of this group.—Formosa is Chinese: T'ai-wan (Taiwan). Korea is
Chinese: Chao-hsien, Japanese: Chosen.
p. 297: M.C. Wright has shown the advisers around the ruler before
the Empress Dowager realized the severity of the situation.—Much
research is under way to study the beginning of industrialization of
Japan, and my opinions have changed greatly, due to the research done
by Japanese scholars and such Western scholars as H. Rosovsky and Th.
Smith. The eminent role of the lower aristocracy has been established.
Similar research for China has not even seriously started. My remarks
are entirely preliminary.
p. 298: For K'ang Yo-wei, I use work done by O. Franke and others.
See M.E. Cameron, The Reform Movement in China, 1898-1921,
Stanford 1921. The best bibliography for this period is J.K. Fairbank
and Liu Kwang-ching, Modern China: A Bibliographical Guide to
Chinese Works, 1898-1937, Cambridge, Mass., 1950. The political
history of the time, as seen by a Chinese scholar, is found in Li
Chien-nung, The Political History of China 1840-1928, Princeton
1956.—For the social history of this period see Chang Chung-li, The
Chinese Gentry, Seattle 1955.—For the history of Tz[)u] Hsi
Bland-Backhouse, China under the Empress Dowager, Peking 1939
(Third ed.) is antiquated, but still used. For some of K'ang Yo-wei's
ideas, see now K'ang Yo-wei: Ta T'ung Shu. The One World Philosophy
of K'ang Yu Wei, London 1957.
Chapter Eleven
p. 305: I rely here partly upon W. Franke's recent studies. For Sun
Yat-sen (Sun I-hsien; also called Sun Chung-shan) see P. Linebarger,
Sun Yat-sen and the Chinese Republic, Cambridge, Mass., 1925 and
his later The Political Doctrines of Sun Yat-sen, Baltimore
1937.—Independently, Atatuerk in Turkey developed a similar theory of
the growth of democracy.
p. 306: On student activities see Kiang Wen-han, The Ideological
Background of the Chinese Student Movement, New York 1948.
p. 307: On Hu Shih see his own The Chinese Renaissance,
Chicago 1934 and J. de Francis, Nationalism and Language Reform in
China, Princeton 1950.
p. 310: The declaration of Independence of Mongolia had its basis in
the early treaty of the Mongols with the Manchus (1636): “In case the
Tai Ch'ing Dynasty falls, you will exist according to previous basic
laws” (R.J. Miller, Monasteries and Culture Change in Inner Mongolia, Wiesbaden 1959, p. 4).
p. 315: For the military activities see F.F. Liu, A Military
History of Modern China, 1924-1949, Princeton 1956. A Marxist
analysis of the 1927 events is Manabendra Nath Roy, Revolution and
Counter-Revolution in China, Calcutta 1946; the relevant documents
are translated in C. Brandt, B. Schwartz, J.K. Fairbank, A
Documentary History of Chinese Communism, Cambridge, Mass., 1952.
Chapter Twelve
For Mao Tse-tung, see B. Schwartz, Chinese Communism and the Rise
of Mao, second ed., Cambridge, Mass., 1958. For Mao's early years;
see J.E. Rue, Mao Tse-tung in Opposition, 1927-1935, Stanford
1966. For the civil war, see L.M. Chassin, The Communist Conquest of
China: A History of the Civil War, 1945-1949, Cambridge, Mass.,
1965. For brief information on communist society, see Franz Schurmann
and Orville Schell, The China Reader, vol. 3, Communist China, New York 1967. For problems of organization, see Franz Schurmann,
Ideology and Organization in Communist China, Berkeley 1966. For
cultural and political problems, see Ho Ping-ti, China in Crisis, vol. 1, China's Heritage and the Communist Political System,
Chicago 1968. For a sympathetic view of rural life in communist China,
see J. Myrdal, Report from a Chinese Village, New York 1966; for
Taiwanese village life, see Bernard Gallin, Hsin Hsing, Taiwan: A
Chinese Village in Change, Berkeley 1966.
INDEX
Abahai, ruler
Abdication
Aborigines
Absolutism (see Despotism, Dictator, Emperor, Monarchy)
Academia Sinica
Academies
Administration;
provincial
(see Army, Feudalism, Bureaucracy)
Adobe (Mud bricks)
Adoptions
Afghanistan
Africa
Agriculture;
development;
Origin of;
of Shang;
shifting (denshiring)
(see Wheat, Millet, Rice, Plough, Irrigation, Manure,
Canals,
Fallow)
An Ti, ruler of Han
Ainu, tribes
Ala-shan mountain range
Alchemy (see Elixir)
Alexander the Great
America (see United States)
Amithabha, god
Amur, river
An Chi-yeh, rebel
An Lu-shan, rebel
Analphabetism
Anarchists
Ancestor, cult
Aniko, sculptor
Animal style
Annam (Vietnam)
Anyang (Yin-ch'ue)
Arabia;
Arabs
Architecture
Aristocracy (see Nobility, Feudalism)
Army, cost of;
organization of;
size of;
Tibetan
(see War, Militia, tu-tu, pu-ch'ue)
Art, Buddhist (see Animal style, Architecture, Pottery,
Painting,
Sculpture, Wood-cut)
Arthashastra, book, attributed to Kautilya
Artisans;
Organizations of
(see Guilds, Craftsmen)
Assimilation (see Colonization)
Astronomy
Austroasiatics
Austronesians
Avars, tribe (see Juan-juan)
Axes, prehistoric
Axis, policy
Babylon
Baghdad, city
Balasagun, city
Ballads
Banks
Banner organization
Barbarians (Foreigners)
Bastards
Bath
Beg, title
Beggar
Bengal
Boat festival
Bokhara (Bukhara), city
Bon, religion
Bondsmen (see pu-ch'ue, Serfs, Feudalism)
Book, printing;
B burning
Boettger, inventor
Boxer rebellion
Boycott
Brahmans, Indian caste
Brain drain
Bronze (see Metal, Copper)
Brothel (Tea-house)
Buddha;
Buddhism
(see Ch'an, Vinaya, Sects, Amithabha, Maitreya,
Hinayana,
Mahayana, Monasteries, Church, Pagoda, Monks, Lamaism)
Budget (see Treasury, Inflation, Deflation)
Bullfights
Bureaucracy;
religious B
(see Administration; Army)
Burgher (liang-min)
Burma
Businessmen (see Merchants, Trade)
Byzantium
Calcutta, city
Caliph (Khaliph)
Cambodia
Canals;
Imperial C
(see Irrigation)
Cannons
Canton (Kuang-chou), city
Capital of Empire (see Ch'ang-an, Sian, Loyang, etc.)
Capitalism (see Investments, Banks, Money, Economy, etc.)
Capitulations (privileges of foreign nations)
Caravans (see Silk road, Trade)
Carpet
Castes, (see Brahmans)
Castiglione, G., painter
Cattle, breeding
Cavalry, (see Horse)
Cave temples (see Lung-men, Yuen-kang, Tunhuang)
Censorate
Censorship
Census (see Population)
Central Asia (see Turkestan, Sinkiang, Tarim, City States)
Champa, State
Ch'an (Zen), meditative Buddhism
Chan-kuo Period (Contending States)
Chancellor
Ch'ang-an, capital of China (see Sian)
Chang Ch'ien, ambassador
Chang Chue-chan, teacher
Chang Hsien-chung, rebel
Chang Hsueeh-hang, war lord
Chang Ling, popular leader
Chang Ti, ruler
Chang Tsai, philosopher
Chang Tso-lin, war lord
Chao, state;
Earlier Chao;
Later Chao
Chao K'uang-yin (T'ai Tsu), ruler
Chao Meng-fu, painter
Charters
Chefoo Convention
Ch'en, dynasty
Ch'en Pa-hsien, ruler
Ch'en Tu-hsiu, intellectual
Ch'eng Hao, philosopher
Cheng Ho, navy commander
Ch'eng I, philosopher
Cheng-i-chiao, religion
Ch'eng Ti, ruler of Han;
ruler of Chin
Ch'eng Tsu, ruler of Manchu
Ch'engtu, city
Ch'i, state;
short dynasty;
Northern Ch'i
Ch'i-fu, clan
Chi-nan, city
Ch'i-tan (see Kitan)
Ch'i Wan-nien, leader
Chia, clan
Chia-ch'ing, period
Chia Ss[)u]-tao, politician
Ch'iang, tribes, (see Tanguts)
Chiang Kai-shek, president
Ch'ien-lung, period
ch'ien-min (commoners),
Chin, dynasty, (see Juchen);
dynasty;
Eastern Chin dynasty;
Later Chin dynasty,
Ch'in, state;
Ch'in, dynasty;
Earlier Ch'in dynasty;
Later Ch'in dynasty;
Western Ch'in dynasty
Ch'in K'ui, politician
Chinese, origin of
Ching Fang, scholar
Ching-te (-chen), city
ching-t'ien system
Ching Tsung, Manchu ruler
Ch'iu Ying, painter
Chou, dynasty;
short Chou dynasty;
Later Chou dynasty;
Northern Chou dynasty
Chou En-lai, politician
Chou-k'ou-tien, archaeological site
Chou-kung (Duke of Chou)
Chou-li, book
Chou Tun-i, philosopher
Christianity (see Nestorians, Jesuits, Missionaries)
Chronology
Ch'u, state
Chu Ch'uean-chung, general and ruler
Chu Hsi, philosopher
Chu-ko Liang, general
Chu Te, general
Chu Tsai-yue, scholar
Chu Yuean-chang (T'ai Tsu), ruler
chuang (see Manors, Estates)
Chuang Tz[)u], philosopher
Chuen-ch'en, ruler
Ch'un-ch'iu, book
chuen-t'ien system (land equalization system)
chuen-tz[)u] (gentleman)
Chung-ch'ang T'ung, philosopher
Chungking (Ch'ung-ch'ing), city
Church, Buddhistic
Taoistic
(see Chang Ling)
Cities
spread and growth of cities
origin of cities
twin cities
(see City states, Ch'ang-an, Sian, Loyang, Hankow, etc.)
City States (of Central Asia)
Clans
Classes, social classes
(see Castes, ch'ien-min, liang-min, Gentry, etc.)
Climate, changes
Cliques
Cloisonne
Cobalt
Coins (see Money)
Colonialism (see Imperialism)
Colonization (see Migration, Assimilation)
Colour prints
Communes
Communism (see Marxism, Socialism, Soviets)
Concubines
Confessions
Confucian ritual
Confucianism
Confucian literature
false Confucian literature
Confucians
(see Neo-Confucianism)
Conquests (see War, Colonialism)
Conservatism
Constitution
Contending States
Co-operatives
Copper (see Bronze, Metal)
Corruption
Corvee (forced labour) (see Labour)
Cotton
Courtesans (see Brothel)
Coxinga, rebel
Craftsmen (see Artisans)
Credits
Criminals
Crop rotation
Dalai Lama, religious ruler of Tibet
Dance
Deflation
Deities (see T'ien, Shang Ti, Maitreya, Amithabha, etc.)
Delft, city
Demands, the twenty-one
Democracy
Denshiring
Despotism (see Absolutism)
Dewey, J., educator
Dialects (see Language)
Dialecticians
Dictators (see Despotism)
Dictionaries
Diploma, for monks
Diplomacy
Disarmament
Discriminatory laws (see Double Standard)
Dog
Dorgon, prince
Double standard, legal
Drama
Dress, changes
Dungan, tribes
Dynastic histories (see History)
Dzungars, people
Eclipses
Economy
Money economy
Natural economy
(see Agriculture, Nomadism, Industry, Denshiring, Money,
Trade, etc.)
Education (see Schools, Universities, Academies, Script,
Examination system, etc.)
Elements, the five
Elephants
Elite (see Intellectuals, Students, Gentry)
Elixir (see Alchemy)
Emperor, position of
Emperor and church
(see Despotism, King, Absolutism, Monarchy, etc.)
Empress (see Lue, Wu, Wei, Tz[)u] Hsi)
Encyclopaedias
England (see Great Britain)
Ephtalites, tribe
Epics
Equalization Office (see chuen-t'ien)
Erotic literature
Estates (chuang)
Ethics (see Confucianism)
Eunuchs
Europe
Europeans
Examination system
Examinations for Buddhists
Fables
Factories
Fallow system
Falsifications (see Confucianism)
Family structure
Family ethics
Family planning
Fan Chung-yen, politician
Fascism
Federations, tribal
Felt
Feng Kuo-chang, politician
Feng Meng-lung, writer
Feng Tao, politician
Feng Yue-hsiang, war lord
Ferghana, city
Fertility cults
differential fertility
Fertilizer
Feudalism
end of feudalism
late feudalism
new feudalism
nomadic feudalism
(see Serfs, Aristocracy, Fiefs, Bondsmen, etc.)
Fiefs
Finances (see Budget, Inflation, Money, Coins)
Fire-arms (see Rifles, Cannons)
Fishing
Folk-tales
Food habits
Foreign relations (see Diplomacy, Treaty, Tribute, War)
Forests
Formosa (T'aiwan)
France
Frontier, concept of
Frugality
Fu Chien, ruler
Fu-lan-chi (Franks)
Fu-lin, Manchu ruler
Fu-yue, country
Fukien, province
Galdan, leader
Gandhara, country
Gardens
Geisha (see Courtesans)
Genealogy
Genghiz Khan, ruler
Gentry (Upper class)
colonial gentry
definition of gentry
gentry state
southern gentry
Germany
Goek Turks
Governors, role of
Grain (see Millet, Rice, Wheat)
Granaries
Great Britain (see England)
Great Leap Forward
Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution
Great Wall
Greeks
Guilds
Hakka, ethnic group
Hami, city state
Han, dynasty
Later Han dynasty
Han Fei Tz[)u], philosopher
Han T'o-wei, politician
Han Yue, philosopher
Hankow (Han-k'ou), city
Hangchow (Hang-chou), city
Heaven (see Shang Ti, T'ien)
Hermits (see Monks, Sages)
Hinayana, religion
Historians
Histories, dynastic
falsification of histories
Historiography
Hitler, Adolf, dictator
Hittites, ethnic group
Ho Ch'eng-t'ien, scholar
Ho-lien P'o-p'o, ruler
Ho Ti, Han ruler
hong, association
Hong Kong, colony
Hopei, province
Horse
horse chariot
horse riding
horse trade
Hospitals
Hou Ching, ruler
Houses (see Adobe)
Hsi-hsia, kingdom
Hsi-k'ang, Tibet
Hsia, dynasty
Hunnic Hsia dynasty
(see Hsi-hsia)
Hsia-hou, clan
Hsia Kui, painter
Hsiao Tao-ch'eng, general
Hsiao Wu Ti, Chin ruler
Hsieh, clan
Hsieh Hsuean, general
Hsien-feng, period
Hsien-pi, tribal federation
Hsien Ti, Han ruler
Hsien-yuen, tribes
Hsin, dynasty
Hsin-an merchants
Hsin Ch'ing-nien, journal
Hsiung-nu, tribal federation (see Huns)
Hsue Shih-ch'ang, president
Hsuean-te, period
Hsuean-tsang, Buddhist
Hsuean Tsung, T'ang ruler
Manchu ruler
Hsuean-t'ung, period
Hsuen Tz[)u], philosopher
Hu, name of tribes (see Huns)
Hu Han-min, politician
Hu Shih, scholar and politician
Hu Wei-yung, politician
Huai-nan Tz[)u], philosopher
Huai, Ti, Chin ruler
Huan Hsuean, general
Huan Wen, general
Huang Ch'ao, leader of rebellion
Huang Ti, ruler
Huang Tsung-hsi, philosopher
Hui-chou merchants
hui-kuan, association
Hui Ti, Chin ruler
Manchu ruler
Hui Tsung, Sung ruler
Hui Tz[)u], philosopher
Human sacrifice
Hung Hsiu-ch'uean, leader of rebellion
Huns (see Hu, Hsiung-nu)
Hunting
Hutuktu, religious ruler
Hydraulic society
i-chuang, clan manors
Ili, river
Imperialism (see Colonialism)
India (see Brahmans, Bengal, Gandhara, Calcutta, Buddhism)
Indo-China (see Cambodia, Annam, Laos).
Indo-Europeans, language group (see Yueeh-chih,
Tocharians,
Hittites)
Indonesia, (see Java)
Industries
Industrialization
Industrial society
(see Factories)
Inflation
Inheritance, laws of
Intellectuals (see Elite, Students)
Investments
Iran (Persia)
Iron
Cast iron
Iron money
(see Steel)
Irrigation
Islam (see Muslims)
Istanbul (Constantinople)
Italy
Japan (see Meiji, Tada, Tanaka)
Java
Jedzgerd, ruler,
Jehol, province,
Jen Tsung, Manchu ruler
Jesuits
Jews
Ju (scribes)
Juchen (Chin Dynasty, Jurchen)
Juan-juan, tribal federation
Jurchen (see Juchen)
K'ai-feng, city (see Yeh, Pien-liang)
Kalmuk, Mongol tribes (see Oeloet)
K'ang-hsi, period
K'ang Yo-wei, politician and scholar
Kansu, province (see Tunhuang)
Kao-ch'ang, city state
Kao, clan
Kao-li, state (see Korea)
Kao Ming, writer
Kao Tsu, Han ruler
Kao Tsung, T'ang ruler
Kao Yang, ruler
Kapok, textile fibre
Kara Kitai, tribal federation
Kashgar, city
Kazak, tribal federation
Khalif (see Caliph)
Khamba, Tibetans
Khan, Central Asian title
Khocho, city
Khotan, city
King, position of
first kings
religious character of kingship
(see Yao, Shun, Hsia dynasty, Emperor, Wang, Prince)
Kitan (Ch'i-tan), tribal federation (see Liao dynasty)
Ko-shu Han, general
Korea (see Kao-li, Pai-chi, Sin-lo)
K'ou Ch'ien-chih, Taoist
Kowloon, city
Ku Yen-wu, geographer
Kuan Han-ch'ing, writer
Kuang-hsue, period
Kuang-wu Ti, Han ruler
Kub(i)lai Khan, Mongol ruler
Kung-sun Lung, philosopher
K'ung Tz[)u] (Confucius)
Kuomintang (KMT), party
Kuo Wei, ruler
Kuo Tz[)u]-hsing, rebel leader
Kuo Tz[)u]-i, loyal general
Kyakhta (Kiachta), city
Labour, forced (see Corvee)
Labour laws
Labour shortage
Lacquer
Lamaism, religion
Land ownership (see Property)
Land reform (see chuen-t'ien, ching-t'ien)
Landlords
temples as landlords
Language
dialects
Language reform
Lang Shih-ning, painter
La Tz[)u], philosopher
Laos, country
Law codes (see Li K'ui, Property law, Inheritance,
Legalists)
Leadership
League of Nations
Leibniz, philosopher
Legalists (fa-chia)
Legitimacy of rule (see Abdication)
Lenin, V.
Lhasa, city
Li An-shih, economist
Li Chung-yen, governor
Li Hung-chang, politician
Li K'o-yung, ruler
Li Kuang-li, general
Li K'ui, law-maker
Li Li-san, politician
Li Lin-fu, politician
Li Lung-mien, painter
Li Shih-min (see T'ai Tsung), T'ang ruler
Li Ss[)u], politician
Li Ta-chao, librarian
Li T'ai-po, poet
Li Tz[)u]-ch'eng, rebel
Li Yu, writer
Li Yu-chen, writer
Li Yuean, ruler
Li Yuean-hung, politician
Liang dynasty, Earlier
Later Liang
Northern Liang
Southern Liang
Western Liang
Liang Ch'i-ch'ao, journalist
liang-min (burghers)
Liao, tribes,
Liao dynasty (see Kitan)
Western Liao dynasty
Liao-chai chih-i, short-story collection
Libraries
Lin-chin, city
Lin-ch'uan, city
Lin Shu, translator
Lin Tse-hsue, politician
Literati, (see Scholars, Confucianists)
Literature (see pien-wen, pi-chi, Poetry, Drama, Novels,
Epics,
Theatre, ballads, Folk-tales, Fables, History, Confucians,
Writers,
Scholars, Scribes)
Literary revolution
Liu Chi, Han ruler
Liu Chin-yuean, ruler
Liu Chin, eunuch
Liu Hsiu (see Kuang wu Ti), Han ruler
Liu Lao-chih, general
liu-min (vagrants)
Liu Pang (see Liu Chi)
Liu Pei, general and ruler
Liu Shao-ch'i, political leader
Liu Sung, rebel
Liu Tsung-yuean, writer
Liu Ts'ung, ruler
Liu Yao, ruler
Liu Yue, general
emperor
Liu Yuean, sculptor
emperor
Lo Kuan-chung, writer
Loans, to farmers
foreign
Loess, soil formation
Logic
Long March
Lorcha War
Loyang (Lo-yang), capital of China
Lu, state
Lue, empress
Lu Hsiang-shan, philosopher
Lu Hsuen, writer
Lue Kuang, ruler
Lue Pu, general
Lue Pu-wei, politician
Lun, prince
Lun-heng, book
Lung-men, place
Lung-shan, excavation site
Lytton Commission
Ma Yin, ruler
Ma Yuean, general
painter
Machiavellism
Macao, Portuguese colony
Mahayana, Buddhist sect
Maitreya, Buddhist deity (see Messianic movements)
Malacca, state
Malaria
Managers
Manchu, tribal federation and dynasty
Manchuria
Manichaeism, Iranian religion
Manors (chuang, see Estates)
Mao Tun, Hsiung-nu ruler
Mao Tse-tung, party leader
Marco Polo, businessman
Market
Market control
Marriage systems
Marxism
Marxist theory of history
(see Materialism, Communism, Lenin, Mao Tse-tung)
Materialism
Mathematics
Matrilinear societies
Mazdaism, Iranian religion
May Fourth Movement
Medicine
Medical doctors
Meditation (see Ch'an)
Megalithic culture
Meiji, Japanese ruler
Melanesia
Mencius (Meng Tz[)u]), philosopher
Merchants
foreign merchants
(see Trade, Salt, Caravans, Businessmen)
Messianic movements
Metal (see Bronze, Copper, Iron)
Mi Fei, painter
Middle Class (see Burgher, Merchant, Craftsmen, Artisans)
Middle East (see Near East)
Migrations
forced migrations
(see Colonization, Assimilation, Settlement)
Militarism
Militia
Millet
Mills
Min, state in Fukien
Ming dynasty
Ming Jui, general
Min Ti, Chin ruler
Ming Ti, Han ruler
Wei ruler
Later T'ang ruler
Minorate
Missionaries, Christian (see Jesuits)
Mo Ti, philosopher
Modernization
Mohammedan rebellions (see Muslim)
Mon-Khmer tribes
Monarchy (see King, Emperor, Absolutism, Despotism)
Monasteries, Buddhist
economic importance
Money
Money economy
Origin of money
paper money
(see Coins, Paper, Silver)
Mongolia
Mongols, tribes, tribal federation, dynasty (see Yuean
dynasty,
Kalmuk, Tuemet, Oirat, Oeloet, Naiman, Turgut, Timur, Genghiz,
Kublai)
Monks, Buddhist
Monopolies
Mound-dwellers
Mu-jung, tribes
Mu Ti, East Chin ruler
Mu Tsung, Manchu ruler
Mulberries
Munda tribes
Music (see Theatre, Dance, Geisha)
Muslims
Muslim rebellions
(see Islam, Mohammedans)
Mysticism
Naiman, Mongol tribe
Nan-chao, state
Nanyang, city
Nanking (Nan-ching), capital of China
Nanking regime
Nationalism (see Kuomintang)
Nature
Nature philosophers
Navy
Near East (see Arabs, Iran, etc.)
Neo-Confucianism
Neolithicum
Nepal
Nerchinsk, place
Nestorian Christianity
Ni Tsan, painter
Nien Fei, rebels
Niu Seng-yu, politician
Nobility
Nomadic nobility
(see Aristocracy)
Nomadism
Economy of nomads
Nomadic society structure
Novels
Oil
Oirat, Mongol tribes
Okinawa (see Ryukyu)
Oeloet, Mongol tribes
Opera
Opium
Opium War
Oracle bones
Ordos, area
Orenburg, city
Organizations (see hui-kuan Guilds, hong, Secret
Societies)
Orphanages
Ottoman (Turkish) Empire
Ou-yang Hsiu, writer
Outer Mongolia
Pagoda
Pai-chi (Paikche), state in Korea
Pai-lien-hui (see White Lotus)
Painting
Palaeolithicum
Pan Ch'ao, general
pao-chia, security system
Paper
Paper money
(see Money)
Parliament
Party (see Kuomintang, Communists)
Pearl Harbour
Peasant rebellions (see Rebellions)
Peking, city
Peking Man
Pensions
People's Democracy
Persecution, religious
Persia (Iran)
Persian language
Peruz, ruler
Philippines, state
Philosophy, (see Confucius, Lao Tz[)u], Chuang Tz[)u],
Huai-nan Tz[)u], Hsuen Tz[)u], Mencius, Hui Tz[)u], Mo Ti,
Kung-sun Lung, Shang Tz[)u], Han Fei Tz[)u], Tsou Yen,
Legalists,
Chung-ch'ang, T'ung, Yuean Chi, Liu Ling, Chu Hsi, Ch'eng Hao,
Lu Hsiang-shan, Wang Yang-ming, etc.)
pi-chi, literary form
pieh-yeh (see Manor)
Pien-liang, city (see K'ai-feng)
pien-wen, literary form
Pig
Pilgrims
P'ing-ch'eng, city
Pirates
Plantation economy
Plough
Po Chue-i, poet
Po-hai, state
Poetry
Court Poetry
Northern Poetry
Poets (see T'ao Ch'ien, Po Chue-i, Li T'ai-po, Tu Fu,
etc.)
Politicians, migratory
Pontic migration
Population changes
Population decrease
(see Census, Fertility)
Porcelain
Port Arthur, city
Portsmouth, treaty
Portuguese (see Fu-lan-chi, Macao)
Potter
Pottery
black pottery
(see Porcelain)
Price controls
Priests (see Shamans, Ju, Monks)
Primogeniture
Princes
Printing (see Colour, Book)
Privileges of gentry
Proletariat (see Labour)
Propaganda
Property relations (see Laws, Inheritance, Primogeniture)
Protectorate
Provinces, administration
pu-ch'ue, bondsmen
P'u-ku Huai-en, general
P'u Sung-lin, writer
P'u Yi, Manchu ruler
Puppet plays
Railways
Manchurian Railway
Rebellions (see Peasants, Secret Societies, Revolutions)
Red Eyebrows, peasant movement
Red Guards
Reforms; Reform of language (see Land reform)
Regents
Religion
popular religion
(see Bon, Shintoism, Persecution, Sacrifice, Ancestor
cult,
Fertility cults, Deities, Temples, Monasteries, Christianity,
Islam,
Buddhism, Mazdaism, Manichaeism, Messianic religions, Secret
societies, Soul, Shamanism, State religion)
Republic
Revolutions; legitimization of revolution (see Rebellions)
Ricci, Matteo, missionary
Rice
Rifles
Ritualism
Roads
Roman Empire
Roosevelt, F.D., president
Russia (see Soviet Republics)
Ryukyu (Liu-ch'iu), islands
Sacrifices
Sages
Sakhalin (Karafuto), island
Salar, ethnic group
Salary
Salt
Salt merchants
Salt trade
Samarkand, city
San-min chu-i, book
Sang Hung-yang, economist
Sassanids, Iranian dynasty
Scholars (Ju) (see Literati, Scribes,
Intellectuals,
Confucianists)
Schools, (see Education)
Science, (see Mathematics, Astronomy, Nature)
Scribes
Script, Chinese
Sculpture
Buddhist sculptures
se-mu (auxiliary troops)
Seal, imperial
Secret societies (see Red Eyebrows; Yellow Turbans; White
Lotus;
Boxer; Rebellions)
Sects
Buddhist sects
Seng-ko-lin-ch'in, general
Serfs (see Slaves, Servants, Bondsmen)
Servants
Settlement, of foreigners
military
(see Colonization)
Sha-t'o, tribal federation
Shadow theatre
Shahruk, ruler
Shamans
Shamanism
Shan tribes of South East Asia
Shan-hai-ching, book
Shan-yue, title of nomadic ruler
Shang dynasty
Shang Ti, deity
Shang Tz[)u], philosopher (Shang Yang)
Shanghai, city
Shao Yung, philosopher
Sheep
Shen Nung, mythical figure
Shen Tsung, Sung ruler
Manchu ruler
Sheng Tsu, Manchu ruler
Shih-chi, book
Shih Ching-t'ang, ruler
Shih Ch'ung, writer
Shih Heng, soldier
Shih Hu, ruler
Shih Huang-ti, ruler
Shih Lo, ruler
Shih-pi, ruler
Shih Ss[)u]-ming
Shih Tsung, Manchu ruler
Shih-wei, Mongol tribes
Shintoism, Japanese religion
Ships (see Navy)
Short stories
Shoulder axes
Shu (Szechwan), area and/or state
Shu-Han dynasty
Shun, dynasty
mythical ruler
Shun-chih, reign period
Sian (Hsi-an, Ch'ang-an), city
Siao Ho (Hsiao Ho), jurist
Silk
Silk road
Silver
Sin-lo (Hsin-lo, Silla), state of Korea
Sinanthropos
Sinkiang (Hsin-Chiang, Turkestan)
Slash and burn agriculture (denshiring)
Slaves
Slave society
Temple slaves
Social mobility
Social structure of tribes
Socialism (see Marxism, Communism)
Sogdiana, country in Central Asia
Soul, concept of soul
South-East Asia (see Burma, Champa, Cambodia, Annam, Laos,
Vietnam, Tonking, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Mon-Khmer)
Soviet Republics (see Russia)
Speculations, financial
Ss[)u]-ma, clan
Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien, historian
Ss[)u]-ma Kuang, historian
Ss[)u]-ma Yen, ruler
Standardization
States, territorial and national
State religion
Statistics (see Population)
Steel
Steppe
Stone age
Stratification, social (see Classes, Social mobility)
Strikes
Students
Su Chuen, rebel
Su Tsung, T'ang ruler
Su Tung-p'o, poet
su-wang (uncrowned king)
Sui, dynasty
Sun Ts'e, ruler
Sun Yat-sen (Sun I-hsien), revolutionary leader, president
Sung, dynasty
Liu-Sung dynasty
Szechwan (Ss[)u]-ch'uan), province (see Shu)
Ta-tan (Tatars), tribal federation
Tada, Japanese militarist
Tai, tribes (see Thailand)
Tai Chen, philosopher
Tai Ch'ing dynasty (Manchu)
T'ai P'ing, state
T'ai Tsu, Sung ruler
Manchu ruler
T'ai Tsung, T'ang ruler (see Li Shih-min)
Taiwan (T'ai-wan, see Formosa)
T'an-yao, priest
Tanaka, Japanese militarist
T'ang, dynasty
Later T'ang dynasty
T'ang Hsien-tsu, writer
T'ang Yin, painter
Tanguts, Tibetan tribal federation and/or state (see
Ch'iang)
Tao, philosophical term
Tao-kuang, reign period
Tao-te-ching, book
T'ao-t'ieh, mythical emblem
Tao-yen, monk
Taoism, religion
Taoists
(see Lao Tz[)u], Chuang Tz[)u], Chang Ling, etc.)
Tarim basin
Tatars (Ta-tan) Mongolian tribal federation
Taxation
Tax collectors
Tax evasion
Tax exemptions
Taxes for monks
Tax reform
Te Tsung, Manchu ruler
Tea
Tea trade
Tea house (see Brothel)
Teachers (see Schools)
Technology
Tell, archaeological term
Temples (see Monasteries)
Tengri khan, ruler
Textile industry (see Silk, Cotton)
Thailand, state (see Tai tribes)
Theatre (see Shadow, Puppet, Opera)
Throne, accession to (see Abdication, Legitimacy)
Ti, Tibetan tribes
Tibet (see Ch'iang, Ti, T'u-fan, T'u-yue-hun, Lhasa
Tanguts)
T'ien, deity
Tientsin (T'ien-chin), city
Timur, ruler
Tin
Ting-ling, tribal federation
T'o-pa (see Toba)
T'o-t'o, writer
Toba, Turkish tribal federation
Tocharians, Central Asian ethnic group
Tokto (see T'o-t'o)
Toeloes, Turkish tribal group
Tombs
Tonking, state
Tortoise
Totalitarianism (see Dictatorship, Fascism, Communism)
Tou Ku, general
T'ou-man, ruler
Towns (see City)
Trade
barter trade
international trade
(see Merchants, Commerce, Caravans, Silk road)
Translations
Transportation (see Roads, Canals, Ships, Post, Caravans,
Horses)
Travels of emperors
Treasury
Treaty, international
Tribal organization (see Banner, Army, Nomads)
Tribes, disappearance of
social organization
military organization
Tribute (kung)
tsa-hu, social class
Tsai T'ien, prince
Ts'ai Yuean-p'ei, scholar
Ts'ao Chih, poet
Ts'ao Hsueeh-ch'in, writer
Ts'ao K'un, politician
Ts'ao P'ei, ruler
Ts'ao Ts'ao, general
Tsewang Rabdan, general
Tseng Kuo-fan, general
Tso Tsung-t'ang, general
Tsou Yen, philosopher
Ts'ui, clan
T'u-chueeh, Goek Turk tribes (see Turks)
Tu Fu, poet
T'u-fan, Tibetan tribal group
Tu-ku, Turkish tribe
T'u-shu chi-ch'eng, encyclopaedia
tu-tu, title
T'u-yue-hun, Tibetan tribal federation
Tuan Ch'i-jui, president
Tuemet, Mongol tribal group
Tung Ch'i-ch'ang, painter
T'ung-chien kang-mu, historical encyclopaedia
T'ung-chih, reign period
Tung Chung-shu, thinker
Tung Fu-hsiang, politician
Tung-lin academy
Tungus tribes (see Juchen, Po-hai, Manchu)
Tunhuang (Tun-huang), city
Turfan, city state
Turgut, Mongol tribal federation
Turkestan (see Central Asia, Tarim, Turfan, Sinkiang,
Ferghana,
Samarkand, Khotcho, Tocharians, Yueeh-chih, Sogdians, etc.)
Turkey
Turks (see Goek Turks, T'u-chueeh, Toba, Toeloes,
Ting-ling, Uighur,
Sha-t'o, etc.)
Tz[)u] Hsi, empress
Uighurs, Turkish federation
United States (see America)
Ungern-Sternberg, general
Urbanization (see City)
Urga, city
University
Usury
Vagrants (liu-min)
Vietnam (see Annam)
Village
Village commons
Vinaya Buddhism
Voltaire, writer
Walls
Great Wall
Wan-li, reign period
Wang (king)
Wang An-shih, statesman
Wang Chen, eunuch
Wang Ching-wei, collaborator
Wang Ch'ung, philosopher
Wang Hsien-chih, peasant leader
Wang Kung, general
Wang Mang, ruler
Wang Shih-chen, writer
Wang Shih-fu, writer
Wang Tao-k'un, writer
Wang Tun, rebel
Wang Yang-ming, general and philosopher
War
size of wars
War-chariot
cost of wars
War lords
Warrior-nomads
(see Army, World War, Opium War, Lorcha War, Fire-arms)
Washington, conference
Wei, dynasty
small state
empress
Wei Chung-hsien, eunuch
Wei T'o, ruler in South China
Welfare state
Well-field system (ching-t'ien),
Wen Ti, Han ruler
Wei ruler
Toba ruler
Sui ruler
Wen Tsung, Manchu ruler
Whampoa, military academy
Wheat
White Lotus sect (Pai-lien)
Wholesalers
Wine
Wood-cut (see Colour print)
Wool (see Felt)
World Wars
Women rights
Writing, invention (see Script)
Wu, empress
state
Wuch'ang, city (see Hankow)
Wu Ching-tz[)u], writer
Wu-huan, tribal federation
Wu P'ei-fu, war lord
Wu San-kui, general
Wu Shih-fan, ruler
Wu-sun, tribal group
Wu Tai (Five Dynasties period)
Wu Tao-tz[)u], painter
Wu (Ti), Han ruler
Chin ruler
Liang ruler
Wu Tsung, Manchu ruler
Wu Wang, Chou ruler
wu-wei, philosophical term
Yakub beg, ruler
Yamato, part of Japan
Yang, clan
Yang Chien, ruler (see Wen Ti)
Yang (Kui-fei), concubine
Yang-shao, archaeological site
Yang Ti, Sui ruler
Yao, mythical ruler
tribes in South China
Yarkand, city in Turkestan
Yeh (K'ai-feng), city
Yeh-ta (see Ephtalites)
Yehe-Nara, tribe
Yellow Turbans, secret society
Yeh-lue Ch'u-ts'ai, politician
Yen, state
dynasty
Earlier Yen dynasty
Later Yen dynasty
Western Yen dynasty
Yen-an, city
Yen Fu, translator
Yen Hsi-shan, war lord
Yen-ta (Altan), ruler
Yen-t'ieh-lun (Discourses on Salt and Iron), book
Yin Chung-k'an, general
Yin-ch'ue, city
Yin and Yang, philosophical terms
Ying Tsung, Manchu ruler
Yo Fei, general
Yue Liang, general
Yue-wen, tribal group
Yuean Chen
Yuean Chi, philosopher
Yuean Mei, writer
Yuean Shao, general
Yuean Shih-k'ai, general and president
Yuean Ti, Han ruler
Chin ruler
Yueeh, tribal group and area
Yueeh-chih, Indo-European-speaking ethnic group
Yuen-kang, caves
Yuennan (Yuen-nan), province
Yung-cheng, reign period
Yung-lo, reign period
Zen Buddhism (see Ch'an)
Zoroaster, founder of religion