was furnished by the simple, aggressive monasticism of the Irish. In Lombard Italy monastic development was at first held back by the Lombards' view of the Catholic Church as a politically suspect 'fifth column', but it took off in the eighth century with the endowment of great Benedictine monasteries such as Farfa, Monte Amiata, Nonantola, and Monte Cassino by kings and dukes, all of which became important cultural and economic centres.

In the east monasticism remained closer to the original Egyptian prototype, as a movement of lay devotion whose holy men attracted popular support in the countryside. Certain developments analogous to those in the west did, however, take place by the sixth century: urban monasteries were established, imperial and conciliar legislation sought to impose greater order and uniformity, and lavish patronage produced rich foundations such as the massive monastery of St Catherine's founded by Justinian on Mount Sinai. The simplicity and grassroots popularity of Byzantine monasticism enabled it to survive the Arab invasions with its position strengthened, especially since episcopal organization was weakened by the decline of the cities. As spokesmen for popular piety, the monks soon found themselves in the forefront of resistance to the Isaurians' policy of iconoclasm. Their staunch defence of icons led to savage persecution, but the movement emerged from the final condemnation of iconoclasm in 843 with its prestige greater than ever. A dramatic increase took place in the endowment of monasteries, particularly the newly popular lavra communities of hermit cells, and in the tenth century the state imposed restrictions out of alarm at the abuses caused by wealth and the loss of manpower and tax revenue to the empire. Two significant developments by around 900 were a new emphasis on learning and copying, best exemplified by the monastery of Studium in Constantinople, and an increase in monastic influence in the 'official' Church; from the ninth century monastic patriarchs became increasingly common and monks provided the backbone of the 'Zealot' party in the Church which resolutely opposed imperial interference in matters of doctrine and discipline.

-44-