situation was particularly dangerous because attacks could be expected both from the Saracens of Fraxinetum (La Garde Freinet) and from the Muslims of North Africa harrying the coasts 'so that no one coming from the west or north to make his prayers at the thresholds of the blessed apostles was able to get into Rome, without being either taken prisoner by these men or only released on payment of a large ransom'. A joint expedition of Lombard, Greek, and papal forces successfully rooted out the Saracen camps from the mouth of the River Garigliano in 915 and the base at Fraxinetum was destroyed in 973. But the Saracen danger in southern Italy and the apparent inability of local forces to dislodge them, provided a pretext for intervention by the German emperors. In 982 Otto II, marching south from Salerno was able to announce that he had come 'to defend the Christian population'. This campaign ended in disaster--the young emperor died in Rome the following year after his army had been defeated at Tarento --but it paved the way for further incursions by northerners.

Legendary history, written after the events, obscures the circumstances of the first coming of Norman mercenaries into southern Italy, but their involvement in the politics of the region was further proof of the inability of the existing powers to provide security. Revolts of Byzantine-held cities such as Bari against the representatives of a distant government (itself distracted by a long campaign in Bulgaria) and the bickering of Lombard princes amidst an ever-present threat of Muslim attack provided a fertile field of activity for groups of knights whose only loyalty lay to their own leaders. Norman knights were reported south of the Garigliano in 1017 and at first were simply 'lances for hire': small groups of men whose families were of little prominence in Normandy, who would fight for whoever promised them a share of the booty. It was not long, however, before the possibility of more permanent rewards presented itself. The Norman knight, Rainulf, became count of Aversa in 1030 and this marked the beginning of their permanent settlement. The most famous adventurers, the de Hauteville brothers, provide a characteristic example of the rewards which military prowess and diplomatic shrewdness

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