own. The incorporation of their houses into an order represented a greater threat than that of Cluny because their organization was so much tighter. When Barbarossa insisted upon the recognition of an antipope, the German Cistercians followed the lead of their order as a whole and refused to acknowledge him; German and Burgundian Cluniacs did, and split their order in consequence. More serious than this, however, was the way in which the ideals of Cîteaux insisted upon the prior obligation of men to God, rejected the comfortable compromise with the demands of the world which Cluniacs had been ready to make, and scorned the things which were the touchstones of the secular power. Individual churchmen had always stood for such claims, but it was something new for a whole range of new orders to be doing so.
The third development, and the one most obviously opposed to the sacral power of kings, came in the growth of papal authority. The competing claims of churches and saints, and the vulnerability of churches to lay depredations, particularly in regions where political authority had broken down, greatly increased the need for an institution which might subject one church to another, free it from such subjection, or take it and its property under its own protection, thus adding St Peter's anathema to their own in the event of an infringement. Papal co-operation was essential to Otto I of Germany in the creation of the archbishopric of Magdeburg against the opposition of other German bishops, just as the papal protection of Poland was essential to its rulers when they sought to avoid political and ecclesiastical domination by Germany. At the same time the pope might quash an election if there were clear evidence of irregularity; thus Hugh Capet of France was in the 990s unable to install his preferred candidate as archbishop of Rheims. During the eleventh century popes exercised their rights more energetically; following the reform of the papacy by Henry III of Germany in 1046, popes began to travel outside Italy (albeit sometimes as refugees from the turbulent Italian politics of the time) and to intervene decisively when they did so. To investigate abuses and encourage appeals they also sent out
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