cipality, for his brother Alphonse de Poitiers (d. 1271), on whose death the county of Toulouse reverted to the crown. The success of Louis IX was partly attributable to his personal qualities--intense devotional piety, a concern for justice and peace, and his reputation as a crusader and exponent of the sanctity of kingship. One might trace the emergence of what has been called a 'religion of monarchy' to his reign, a theme taken up and inflated by Philip IV (the Fair). But Louis IX had been well served by his own relatives, by a bureaucracy which was increasingly staffed by laymen, and by the French Church. He also profited in large measure from the collapse of Hohenstaufen power. It was to the kings of France, rather than the German emperors, that men increasingly looked for moral leadership, sanctification of secular power, and impartial arbitration of their conflicts.

These themes were expressed at their fullest state of development under Philip the Fair ( 1285-1314). Louis IX was canonized as a result of French pressure upon Pope Boniface VIII in 1297 and he cast a heavy shadow over Philip's reign. Yet the assertions of Philip and his advisers did not meet with universal acclaim. The relative harmony of Franco-papal relations under St Louis and Philip III ( 1270-85) was ruptured by the outbreak of a great quarrel (or series of quarrels) with Boniface VIII between 1294 and 1303. The issue was fundamentally one of a secular ruler's right to tax the clergy within his kingdom and was not confined to France. Edward I of England encountered similar problems in the 1290s. However, the Franco-papal conflict was characterized by a virulent intensity that had probably not been seen since the struggles of Pope Gregory VII and the Emperor Henry IV in the late eleventh century. The propaganda which issued from both sides--Boniface VIII's fulminations and resounding statements of papal claims in the bull Unam Sanctam ( 1302) or Philip the Fair's attacks upon the pope's universal sovereignty, doctrinal orthodoxy, and capacity to undertake inquiries into heresy--demonstrated that the role formerly played by the German emperor as champion and leader of the secular powers of Christendom had, at least temporarily, passed to the French

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