were now fought not merely for territory, but for the Faith. It was in this heady spiritual atmosphere that, according to the later Arab chronicler al-Maqqari, Alfonso I 'the Battler' ( 1104-34), king of Aragon and Navarre 'sent messengers . . . summoning all the Christian nations to come and help him' continue the conquest of the cities of the Ebro valley. The projected attack on Saragossa was the subject of a council at Toulouse in 1118, where such influential Provençal lords as Gaston de Béarn, Centulo de Bigorre, and Bernard, viscount of Carcassonne, all of whom had already fought in the Holy Land, discussed the plans for the siege. Pope Gelasius II granted remission of sins to all those who took part and thus laid the basis for the full recognition of Spain as a legitimate area of crusade by Eugenius III's revised crusading Bull, Divina dispositione ( 1148). Thus the twelfth century saw the full panoply of crusading warfare reach the Iberian peninsula. Military Orders, in imitation of the Templars and Hospitallers in the Holy Land were founded: the Order of Calatrava in 1158 and that of Santiago, given papal confirmation in 1175. Spanish knights were encouraged by the papacy to remain at home fighting the infidel, rather than taking up the cross in the east.

There was a similar hardening of spiritual attitudes amongst the Muslims. After the fall of Toledo, al-Mu' tamid of Seville appealed for help against Alfonso VI from the Almoravid rulers of North Africa. These new armies helped to stem the tide of Christian advance, but they brought with them a more austere and combative Muslim ideology, an active criticism of the cultured but effete taifa rulers for their policy of compromise and forceful promotion of the Holy War. The Almoravids and their successors, the Almohades, controlled Muslim Spain for most of the twelfth century and held the Christian armies in check. It was only after the preaching of a crusade in Italy, northern France, Germany, and Provence by Rodrigo Ximénez de Rada, the archbishop of Toledo, that a massive Christian army was able to inflict a decisive defeat upon the Almohades at the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa ( 1212).

The polarization of religious attitudes did much to harm indigenous Spanish traditions, but the peninsula still pro-

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