ing list of names of kings and battles, and a bewildering lack of any information about motives or personalities. At any one time in this period there were probably over two hundred kings in northern Europe. To understand the workings of different barbarian kingdoms and of the problems faced by kings in northern Europe it may be best therefore to look at just three kings from three very different barbarian societies, each from the first half of the seventh century: Dagobert of the Franks, Rædwald of the East Angles, and Congal Cáech of the Cruthin in Ulaid (East Ulster).

Congal Cáech or Cláen (the Squinting or Half-Blind) was king of Dál nAraidi, whose inhabitants were called the Cruthin (Old Irish for 'Picts'). The kings of the dynasty of Dál nAraidi ruled over the central part of modern County Antrim, with the Dál Fiatach to the south and the Dál Riata to the north. This latter dynasty had established a colony in south-west Scotland in the fifth century, and from the sixth century their kings usually ruled their Irish kingdom from Scotland. In 627 Congal became over-king of the whole of Ulaid, receiving tribute from the other kings. In 628 he went to battle against the powerful Uí Néill dynasty to the east, killing their over-king, Suibne Menn. In 629 he fought in Dál Riata, killing not only their king, but also a number of Bernician princes who had gone into exile in Dál Riata when Edwin, with Rædwald's help, had conquered Northumbria. In that same year, however, Congal invaded the Uí Néill, and was defeated by their new over-king Domnall mac Aedo. He survived the battle, and by 637 had managed to persuade the Dál Riata to abandon their old alliance with the Uí Néill and to join with him. Together with Domnall Brecc of Dál Riata he fought Domnall mac Aedo in the great battle of Moira, in County Down. On the same day the Dál Riata, together with one group of Uí Néill, clashed with Domnall mac Aedo's fleet off the Mull of Kintyre: it looks as if Congal had been successful in playing one Uí Néill group off against another. But Congal was killed on the battlefield, and the Uí Néill's dominance over the north was henceforth unchallenged. The Annals of Ulster give the title of 'king of Ireland' to Domnal mac Aedo when he died peacefully in 642,

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