At the beginning of the nineteenth century the foreign dominions of
Spain, although reduced, were still a vast and imperial possession. The
colonial territory over which Alfonso XIII. was to have sovereignty at
the close of that century, consisted of the Philippines, the richest of
the East Indies; Cuba, the richest of the West Indies; Porto Rico, and
a few outlying groups of islands of no great value.
Nowhere had the Constitution of 1812 awakened more hope than in
Cuba; and from the setting aside of that instrument by Ferdinand VI.
dates the existence of an insurgent party in that beautiful but most
unhappy island. Ages of spoliation and cruelty and wrong had done their
work. The iron of oppression had entered into the soul of the Cuban.
There was a deep exasperation which refused to be calmed. From
thenceforth annexation to the United States, or else a “Cuba Libre,” was the determined, and even desperate aim.
After a ten-years' war, 1868-78, the people yielded to what proved a
delusive promise of home-rule. How could Spain bestow upon her colony
what she did not possess herself? When in 1881 she tried to pacify Cuba
by permitting that island to send six Senators to sit in the Spanish
Cortes, it was a phantom of a phantom. There was no outlet for the
national will in Spain itself. Her Cortes was not a national
assembly, and its members were not the choice of the people. How
much less must they be so then in Cuba, where they were only men of
straw selected by the home government, for the purpose of
defeating—not expressing—the popular will? The emptiness of this gift
was soon discovered. Then came a shorter conflict, which was only a
prelude to the last.
A handful of ragged revolutionists, ignorant of the arts of war,
commenced the final struggle for liberty on February 24, 1895, under
the leadership of José Marti. At the end of two years a poorly armed
band of guerrilla soldiers had waged a successful contest against
235,000 well-equipped troops, supported by a militia and a navy, and
maintained by supplies from Spain; had adopted a Constitution, and were
asking for recognition as a free Republic. The Spanish commander
Martinez Campos was superseded by General Weyler (1895), and a new and
severer method was inaugurated in dealing with the stubborn
revolutionists, but with no better success than before. In August,
1897, an insurrection broke out anew in the Philippines, and Spain was
in despair.
America calmly resisted all appeals for annexation or for
intervention in Cuba. Sympathy for Cuban patriots was strong in the
hearts of the people, but the American Government steadfastly
maintained an attitude of strict neutrality and impartiality, and with
unexampled patience saw a commerce amounting annually to one hundred
millions of dollars wiped out of existence, her citizens reduced to
want by the destruction of their property,—some of them lying in
Spanish dungeons subjected to barbarities which were worthy of the
Turkish Janizaries; our fleets used as a coastguard and a police, in
the protection of Spanish interests, and more intolerable than all
else, our hearts wrung by cries of anguish at our very doors!
But when General Weyler inaugurated a system for the deliberate
starvation of thirty thousand “Reconcentrados,” an innocent peasantry
driven from their homes and herded in cities, there to perish, the
limit of patience was reached. It was this touch of human pity—this
last and intolerable strain upon our sympathies—which turned the
scale.
While a profound feeling of indignation was prevailing on account of
these revolting crimes against humanity, the battleship Maine
was, by request of Consul General Lee at that place, dispatched to the
harbor of Havana to guard American citizens and interests. The sullen
reception of the Maine was followed on February 15, 1898, by a
tragedy which shocked the world. Whether the destruction of that ship
and the death of 266 brave men was from internal or external causes was
a very critical question. It was submitted to a court of inquiry which,
after long deliberation, rendered the decision that the cause was—
external.
It looked dark for lovers of peace! President McKinley exhausted all
the resources of diplomacy before he abandoned hope of a peaceful
adjustment which would at the same time compel justice to the Cuban
people. But on April 25, 1898, it was declared that war existed between
Spain and America.
Less than a week after this declaration, in the early morning of May
1, a victory over the Spanish fleet at Manila was achieved by Commodore
Dewey, which made him virtual master of the Philippines; and just two
months later, July 1 and 2 were made memorable by two engagements in
the West Indies, resulting, the one in the defeat of the Spanish land
forces at San Juan, and the other in the complete annihilation of
Admiral Cervera's fleet in the Bay of Santiago de Cuba—misfortunes so
overwhelming that overtures for peace were quickly received at
Washington from Madrid; and the Spanish-American War was over.
The colonial empire of Spain was at an end. The kingdom over which
Alfonso XIII. was soon to reign had at a stroke lost the Spanish Indies
in the West, and the Philippines in the far East. To America was
confided the destiny of these widely separated possessions, Porto Rico
being permanently ceded to the United States; while, according to the
avowed purpose at the outset of the war, Cuba and the islands in the
Pacific, as soon as fitted for self-government, were to be given into
their own keeping; a promise which in the case of Cuba has already been
redeemed, all possible haste being made to prepare the Philippines for
a similar responsibility and destiny.
The quickness with which cordial relations have been re-established
between Spain and the United States is most gratifying; and too much
praise cannot be bestowed upon that proud, high-spirited people, who
have accepted the results of the war in a spirit so admirable. In the
loss of her American colonies, Spain has been paying a debt contracted
in the days of her dazzling splendor—the time of the great Charles and
of Philip II.,—a kind of indebtedness which in the case of nations is
never forgiven, but must be paid to the uttermost farthing. If history
teaches anything, it is that the nations which have been cruel and
unjust sooner or later must “drink the cup of the Lord's fury,” just as
surely as did the Assyrians of old. Another thing which is quite as
obvious is that the nations of the earth to-day must accept the ideals
of the advancing tide of modern civilization, or perish! A people whose
national festival is a bull-fight, has still something to learn. Much
of mediævalism still lingers in the methods and ideals of Spain. In the
time of her opulence and splendor these methods and ideals were hers.
So she believes in them and clings to them still. She has been the
victim of a vicious political system, to which an intensely proud,
patriotic, and brave people have believed they must be loyal.
In no other land—as we have seen—is the national spirit so strong.
Certainly nowhere else has it ever been subjected to such strain and
survived. And this intense loyalty, this overwhelming pride of race,
this magnificent valor, have all been summoned to uphold a poor,
perishing, vicious political system.
But the Zeitgeist is contagious. And at no time has its
influence in this conservative kingdom been so apparent as since the
Spanish-American War; soon after this was over, Alfonso ascended the
throne of his fathers. The important question of his marriage after
long consideration was decided by himself, when he selected an English
Princess, niece of Edward VII., for his future Queen. The Princess Ena
is the daughter of Princess Beatrice,—youngest child of Queen
Victoria,—and Prince Henry of Battenberg, who was killed some years
ago during one of the Kaffir wars in South Africa. A royal marriage
uniting Protestant England and Catholic Spain would at one time have
cost a throne and perhaps a head; and the cordiality, and even
enthusiasm, with which this union has been greeted in England shows
what seas of prejudice have been sailed through and what continents of
sectarian differences have been left behind; proving that the
Zeitgeist has been busy in England as well as in Spain.
The royal marriage of these two children—(the King having just
passed his twentieth birthday)—attended by the traditional
formalities, and a revival of almost mediæval splendor, took place at
Madrid, June 1, 1906. The many romantic features attending the
courtship of the boy King and his English girl-bride invested the
occasion with a picturesque interest for the whole world. And
yet—impossible as it would have seemed—there existed some one
degenerate enough to convert it into a ghastly tragedy. While returning
to the royal palace over flower-strewn streets, after the conclusion of
the marriage ceremony, a bomb concealed in a bouquet was thrown from an
upper window, hitting the royal coach at which it was directly aimed.
The young King and Queen escaped as if by a miracle from the wreck; and
the destruction intended for them bore death and mutilation to scores
of innocent people in no wise connected with the Government; and
Madrid, at the moment of her supreme rejoicing, was converted into a
blood-stained, mourning city.
Never did anarchistic methods seem so utterly divorced from
intelligence as in this last attempt at regicide. If it had succeeded,
an infant-nephew would have been King of Spain, with a long regency,
perhaps, of some well-seasoned Castilian of the old school!
There was an incident in connection with this marriage which deeply
touches the American heart. The special envoy, bearing a letter of
congratulation to the King from President Roosevelt, was received with
a warmth and consideration far exceeding what was required by
diplomatic usage, and the stars and stripes helping to adorn Madrid for
the great festival gave assurance that Spain and the United States are
really friends again.
LIST OF VISIGOTH KINGS.
A.D.
Ataulfus, 411-415
Wallia, 415-420
Theodored, 420-451
Thorismund, 451-452
Theodoric I. (Defeated Attila), 452-466
Evaric (Completed Gothic Conquest in Spain), 466-483
Alaric, 483-506
Gesaleic, 506-511
Theodoric II., 511-522
Amalaric, 522-531
Theudis, 531-548
Theudisel, 548-549
Agilan, 549-554
Athanagild I., 554-567
Liuva I., 567-570
Leovigild, 570-587
Recared I., 587-601
Liuva II., 601-603
Witteric, 603-610
Gundemar, 610-612
Sisebert, 612-621
Recared II. (3 months).
Swintila, 621-631
Sisenand, 631-636
Chintila, 636-640
Tulga, 640-642
Chindaswind, 642-649
Receswind, 649-672
Wamba, 672-680
Ervigius, 680-687
Egica (son of Wamba), 687-701
Witiza, 701-709
Roderick, 700-711
Theodomir, } Kings without a kingdom { 711-743
Athanagild II.,} { 743-755
KINGS OF THE ASTURIAS AND LEON.
A.D.
Pelayo (of Royal Gothic birth), 718
Favila (son of above), 737
Alfonso I. (son-in-law of Pelayo), 739
Fruela I. (son of Alfonso), 757
Aurelio, 768
Mauregato, 774
Bermudo I., 788
Alfonso II., 791
Ramiro I., 842
Ordoño I., 850
Alfonso III., 866
Garcia, 910
Ordoño II., 914
Fruela II., 923
Alfonso IV., 925
Ramiro II., 930
Ordoño III., 950
Sancho I., 955
Ramiro III., 967
Bermudo II., 982
Alfonso V., 999
Bermudo III., 1027
Fernando I. (also King of Castile), 1037
Alfonso VI., 1065
Urraca, 1109
Alfonso VII. (also King of Castile), 1126
Fernando II., 1157
Alfonso IX. (Aided Conquest of Moors), 1188
Fernando III., 1230
LEON AND CASTILE UNITED.
Alfonso X. (el sabio), 1252
Sancho IV., 1284
Fernando IV., 1295
Alfonso XI., 1312
Pedro I. (el cruel), 1350
Enrique II., 1369
Juan I., 1379
Enrique IV., 1454
Isabel I. (married to Fernando II.
of Aragon), 1474
CASTILE AND ARAGON UNITED.
Carlos I. (Charles I. Elected
Charles V. of Germany, 1519), 1516
Philip II., 1556
Philip III., 1593
Philip IV., 1621
Carlos II., 1665
HOUSE OF BOURBON.
Philip V., 1700
Fernando VI., 1746
Carlos III., 1759
Carlos IV., 1788
Ferdinand VII., 1799
Joseph Bonaparte, 1806
Ferdinand VII. (reinstated), 1814
Isabella II. (dethroned, 1868), 1843
Alfonso XII., 1874
Alfonso XIII., 1885
INDEX
Abbasides, 66, 67
Abd-el-Rahman I, 66, 67, 68, 69, 72
Abd-el-Rahman II, 72, 73, 74
Abd-el-Rahman III, 74
Abdul Hassan, 105, 106
Acropolis, 92
Actium, 27
Æneas, 12
Ætius, 36
Ahab, 12
Alaric, 31
Alcázar, 89
Alexander, 13
Alfonso I, 63, 64, 65, 78
Alfonso III, 78
Alfonso VI, 81, 82
Alfonso IX, 86
Alfonso X, 90
Alfonso XII, 154, 155, 156, 160
Alfonso XIII, 144, 148, 150, 155, 162
Alhambra, 92, 106, 107
Alhama, 106
Almanzor, 79, 80, 86
Almoravides, 83, 84
Alsace, 129
Andalusian, 32, 61, 67, 79, 80
Antony, 27
Arabia, 91
Aragon, 64
Arianism, 40, 46
Armada, 121
Arthur, 70, 82
Assyrian, 7
Asturias, 6, 63, 64, 78, 81, 125
Ataulf, 32
Austria, Archduke of, 110
Ayasha, 105
Babel, 4
Babylonian, 7
Bacon, Roger, 87
Badajos, 83
Baghdad, 74, 75
Balboa, 114
Balearic, 11
Barcelona, 12
Basques, 36, 70
Battenberg, 162
Beatrice, 162
Berber, 2, 58, 65, 81, 83
Bertrand du Guesclin, 96
Black Prince, 95
Blanche de Bourbon, 95
Blenheim, 133
Boabdil, 105, 106, 107
Bourbon, 130
Braganza, Duke de, 128
Brummel, 73
Brunhilde, 42
Brutus, 27
Cadiz, 8, 21, 55, 120
Cæsar, 26, 27
Canaan, 7
Canada, 138, 139
Canning, 147
Cantabrian, 56, 64, 127
Carlists, 149
Carlos II, 128, 130, 131, 132
Carlos III, 135, 136, 141
Carlos IV, 142
Carolinas, 129
Carthage, 10, 12
Carthagena, 15
Castelar, 153
Castile, 64, 79, 81, 94, 100, 101, 109
Castilian, 81, 123
Catalonian, 6
Catherine, 109, 118
Catherine de' Medici, 119
Cato, the Elder, 22
Cervantes, 24, 126
Cervera, 160
Ceuta, 18
Chaldean Civilization, 6
Chanson de Roland, 70
Charlemagne, 69, 70, 142
Charles Martel, 58, 69, 86
Charles I, 131
Charles II, 129
Charles V, 95, 110, 112, 122, 123
Chivalry, 126
Christina, 150
Christina, Hapsburg, 154
Cid, 82, 83, 85, 88
Clovis, 36
Columbus, 29, 109, 114
Constantinople, 107
Constantius, 34
Constanza, 96
Constitution, 144, 145, 148, 149
Corneille, 24, 26
Cortes, 112, 113, 144, 145, 147
Cortez, 112
Count Julian, 52-56
Court of the Lions, 106
Covadonga, 64, 88
Crusade, 86, 87
Damascus, 60, 74
Delenda est Carthago, 21
De Soto, 112
Dictator, 27
Dido, 12
Don Quixote, 126
Don Carlos, 159
Drake, Sir Francis, 120
Edward III, 96
Egmont, 119
Egyptian Civilization, 6
Eleanor, Queen, 90
Elizabeth, 120
Ena, Princess, 162
Enrique III, 96, 97
Enrique IV, 97
Errigius, 73, 74
Escurial, 117, 121, 154, 155
Eugene, Prince, 133
Eulogius, 73, 74
Evaric, 36
Ezekiel, 10
Ferdinand I, 100, 101, 105, 107, 111, 130
Ferdinand VI, 135
Ferdinand VII, 142
Fernando I, 79
Flanders, 112
Florida, 121, 129
Francis I, 111, 114
Francis d'Assisi, 152
Frederick II, 90
Gallicians, 6
Garibaldi, 153
George IV, 73
Gibraltar, 18, 135, 139, 141, 142
Granada, 85, 86, 92, 100, 101, 104
Guadalquivir, 73
Hamilcar, 14, 15
Hannibal, 12
Hapsburg, 130
Havana, 138
Henrietta, 127
Henry II, 119
Henry VIII, 109, 111, 117
Hidalgo, 50, 63, 78, 123
Hiram, 10, 109
Hispania, 21
Holy Alliance, 146, 147, 148, 149
Honorius, 34
Horn, 119
Huesca, 25
Huns, 36
Iberia, 2, 6
Ides of March, 27
Ionian, 9
Isabella I, 12, 96, 100, 102, 108, 109, 110, 130
Isabella II, 150, 151, 152
Isabella de Bourbon, 125
Isabel of Portugal, 114
Isaiah, 13
Islam, 59, 64
Jamaica, 128, 129
James II, 131, 132
Janizaries, 158
Jesuits, 136
Jezebel, 12
Joanna, 109, 110
John of Gaunt, 96, 97
José Marti, 157
Joseph Bonaparte, 143
Juan II, 100, 102
Juntas, 143
Karl, Archduke of Austria, 132, 133
Kelts, 4
Keltiberians, 5, 15, 22
Khalif, 65, 66, 75-77
Koran, 60
Kossuth, 151
Lee, 159
Leo X, 111
Leon, 79, 81, 94
Leopold, 132
Leovigild, 43
Lira, 24
Lorraine, 129
Louis IX, 90
Louis XIII, 125
Louis XIV, 127, 128, 131, 132, 133, 134
Louis XV, 140
Louisiana, 139
Lucan, 29
Luther, 114, 116
Madrid, Treaty of, 139
Magellan, 114
Mahdi, 85
Maine, 159
Manila, 138, 160
Maria Theresa, 127, 132
Marie de' Medici, 125
Marius, 23, 24
Marlborough, 133
Martian, 29
Martinez Campos, 158
Mary Tudor, 117, 118
Maximilian, 109, 111
Mazzini, 153
Mercedes, 154
Mexico, 20, 112, 137
Milan, 135
Minorca, 135
Mississippi, 138
Mithridates, 25
Monroe, 147
Moor, 56
Moriscos, 126, 128
Moscow, 143
Montpensier, Duke de, 152, 154
Munda, 26
Murillo, 52
Mur-Viedo, 16
Musa, 52
Naples, 135
Napoleon, 139, 142
Navarre, 79, 94
Nelson, 142
Ne plus ultra, 18
Nero, 29, 73
Netherlands, 115, 119, 120, 128, 135
New Orleans, 139
Nineveh, 7
Noah, 7
Numantia, 24
Octavius Augustus, 23
Olivier, 70
Omeyads, 66, 67, 72, 74
Opus Majus, 87
Ordoño I, 79
Osca, 25
Ostrogoths, 36
Paladins, 70
Pedro, 83, 95
Pelagius, 64
Pelasgians, 30, 88
Peru, 20, 112, 137
Petronius, 73
Phenicia, 91
Philip II, 161
Philip III, 125, 126, 127
Philip IV, 127, 128
Philip V, 33, 134, 133
Philippi, 27
Philippines, 137, 138, 156, 158, 160
Pillars of Hercules, 18, 82
Pizzarro, 112
Placidia, 33
Plutarch, 24
Pompey, 25, 26
Ponce de Leon, 112
Portugal, 94, 102, 109
Pragmatic Sanction, 151
Pretender, 132
Protestantism, 115, 118, 119
Punic, 11, 14, 16
Quebec, 138
Quintilian, 29
Ramiro I, 79
Recared, 46
Reconcentrados, 159
Reformation, 114
Richelieu, 131
Roderick, 51, 54, 56, 107
Roland, 70, 71
Rome, 13
Roncesvalles, 13
Saguntum, 9, 16
Sahara, 2
Salic Law, 150
Saracen, 61, 62, 63
Santiago de Cuba, 160
Sardinia, 11, 14, 135
Scipio, 19, 22
Seneca, 29
Seville, 88, 89
Sidon, 7, 12
Spanish Succession, War of, 33
Spartans, 30
St. Augustine, 129
St. Bartholomew, 119
Stuart, House of, 131
Suevi, 31
Sylla, 23, 24
Syrian, 7
Tarif, 53
Tarshish, 10, 13
Toledo, 45, 65
Torquemada, 103
Trafalgar, 142
Troy, 9
Tubal, 4
Tyre, 7, 13
Ulfilas, 39
Utrecht, Peace of, 134
Valladolid, 100, 101, 104, 117
Vandals, 30
Visigoths, 36
Wamba, 47
Wellington, 143
Weyler, 158
White Hind, 26
Witiza, 50, 51
Yusuf, 67
Zante, 9
Zarynthus, 9
Zeitgeist, 162, 163
Ziryab, 73