====================================================================== = Jungian cognitive functions = ====================================================================== Introduction ====================================================================== Cognitive functions, also referred to as psychological functions, as described by Carl Jung in his book 'Psychological Types', are particular mental processes within a person's psyche that are present regardless of common circumstance. This was a concept that served as one of the conceptual foundations for his theory on personality type. In his book, he noted four main psychological functions: 'thinking', 'feeling', 'sensation', and 'intuition'. He introduced them with having either an internally focused ('introverted') or externally focused ('extraverted') tendency which he called "attitudes". History ====================================================================== Jung originally conceived of the model in which four cognitive functions combine to form different psychological types. This was done in his work 'Psychological Types', published as the sixth volume in 'The Collected Works of C. G. Jung.' Jung posited that the functions formed a hierarchy within a person's psychological dynamicsâthe most developed function is referred to as the "dominant", with the remaining three filling the roles as "auxiliary" and "inferior" functions. The four basic functions were thinking, feeling, intuition, and sensation. The concept of introversion and extraversion were also conceived by Jung, and were used in conjunction with the four functions. Psychological functions ====================================================================== The four psychological functions may be subjugated to the control of consciousness, which can take two attitudes: * Extraversion: "a strong, if not exclusive, determination by the object." Consciously, in an extrovert, the four basic cognitive functions follow the extroverted 'general attitude of consciousness': "Now, when the orientation to the object and to objective facts is so predominant that the most frequent and essential decisions and actions are determined, not by subjective values but by objective relations, one speaks of an extroverted attitude. When this is habitual, one speaks of an extroverted type. If a man so thinks, feels, and acts, in a word so lives, as to correspond directly with objective conditions and their claims, whether in a good sense or ill, he is extroverted." * Introversion: "a turning inwards of the libido, whereby a negative relation of subject to object is expressed. Interest does not move towards the object, but recedes towards the subject." Consciously, in an introvert, the four basic cognitive functions follow the introverted 'general attitude of consciousness'. "Everyone whose attitude is introverted thinks, feels, and acts in a way that clearly demonstrates that the subject is the chief factor of motivation while the object at most receives only a secondary value." The difference between extraversion and introversion comes from the source of the decisive factor in forming motivation and developing ideas, whether it is objective (i.e. the external environment) or subjective (the collective unconscious, or "processes inherent in the psyche"). When discussing function types, Jung ascribed movements of the libido in both directions for each function in each function type, but with one direction being that final judge. The four basic psychological functions, thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition are "basic functions" that can be briefly defined as follows. Thinking ========== According to Jung, thinking is "that psychological function which, in accordance with its own laws, brings given presentations into conceptual connection." Jung also made distinction between active and passive thinking: "The term 'thinking' should, in my view, be confined to the linking up of representations by means of a concept, where, in other words, an act of judgment prevails, whether such act be the product of oneâs intentions or not. The faculty of directed thinking, I term 'intellect'. The faculty of passive, or undirected, thinking, I term 'intellectual intuition'." The former, active thought, is what Jung considered a 'judging function'. It deals with the mechanical nature of objects and values impersonal logic. Later, some interpreted Jung's extroverted thinking and introverted thinking to mean other than the function of thought as represented in extroverts and introverts respectively. In Adler and Hull's translation of Jung's 'Psychological Types', Jung states: "Apart from the qualities I have mentioned, the undeveloped functions possess the further peculiarity that, when the conscious attitude is introverted, they are extroverted and vice versa. One could therefore expect to find extroverted feelings in an introverted intellectual..." Thus, Te and Ti reflect specific sets of skills whether in an introvert or extrovert: Extraverted thinking (Te) =========================== Extraverted thinking is the thinking function that is 'objective' (being extroverted) and typically employs inductive reasoning. Extroverted thinking often places information such as facts in high order; Te is a process that is concerned with organisation and hierarchy of phenomena. Although Te prefers data that is concrete and empirical in nature, the information only needs to be external and other phenomena that cannot be reduced to some form of 'objective' nature will be ignored by the Te function. Te is seen as employing a level of goal-setting and results within its function properties, taking steps towards the actionable. "In accordance with his definition, we must picture a, man whose constant aim -- in so far, of course, as he is a [p. 435] pure type -- is to bring his total life-activities into relation with intellectual conclusions, which in the last resort are always orientated by objective data, whether objective facts or generally valid ideas. This type of man gives the deciding voice-not merely for himself alone but also on behalf of his entourage-either to the actual objective reality or to its objectively orientated, intellectual formula. By this formula are good and evil measured, and beauty and ugliness determined. All is right that corresponds with this formula; all is wrong that contradicts it; and everything that is neutral to it is purely accidental." Introverted thinking (Ti) =========================== Introverted thinking is the thinking function that is 'subjective' (being introverted) and typically employs deductive reasoning. Ti is concerned with the general idea of phenomena and will attempt to explain a logical problem with subjective information. It contains a set of 'logical principles' that wishes to 'abstract' a system or structure to its bare principles. Hence, Ti is highly analytical; it also enforces a level of independence and individuality within its cognitive framework. Ti is seen as purely analytical and points to the principles from which facts are derived. "Just as Darwin might possibly represent the normal extroverted thinking type, so we might point to Kant as a counter-example of the normal introverted thinking type. The former speaks with facts; the latter appeals to the subjective factor. Darwin ranges over the wide fields of objective facts, while Kant restricts himself to a critique of knowledge in general. But suppose a Cuvier be contrasted with a Nietzsche: the antithesis becomes even sharper." "The introverted thinking type is characterized by a priority of the thinking I have just described. Like his [p. 485] extroverted parallel, he is decisively influenced by ideas; these, however, have their origin, not in the objective data but in the subjective foundation. Like the extravert, he too will follow his ideas, but in the reverse direction: inwardly not outwardly. Intensity is his aim, not extensity. In these fundamental characters he differs markedly, indeed quite unmistakably from his extraverted parallel. Like every introverted type, he is almost completely lacking in that which distinguishes his counter type, namely, the intensive relatedness to the object." Feeling ========= Jung defined feeling as "primarily a process that takes place between the ego and a given content, a process, moreover, that imparts to the content a definite value in the sense of acceptance or rejection [...] Hence feeling is also a kind of judging, differing, however, from an intellectual judgment, in that it does not aim at establishing an intellectual connection but is solely concerned with the setting up of a subjective criterion of acceptance or rejection." Also Jung made distinctions between feeling as a judging function, and emotions (affect): "Feeling is distinguished from affect by the fact that it gives rise to no perceptible physical innervation's." Later, some interpreted Jung's extroverted feeling and introverted feeling to mean other than the function of feeling as represented in extroverts and introverts respectively, Jung's written words in Psychological Types support that interpretation by stating it explicitly: "Apart from the qualities I have mentioned, the undeveloped functions possess the further peculiarity that, when the conscious attitude is introverted, they are extroverted and vice versa. One could therefore expect to find extroverted feelings in an introverted intellectual"[4]" Thus, like Te and Ti, Fe and Fi reflect specific sets of skills whether in an introvert or extrovert: Extraverted feeling (Fe) ========================== Extraverted feeling (Fe) is the feeling function that is primarily concerned with connection and commonality to others. Since it is extroverted and objective, it encapsulates the system of 'value' outward in the form of common courtesy and etiquette. Fe can be seen as accommodating and presents to mind a picture of a motherly figure. Overall, Fe is concerned with phenomena to be harmonious with its external environment. Jung writes of extroverted feelers as those where feeling "loses its personal character -- it becomes feeling per se; it almost seems as though the personality were wholly dissolved in the feeling of the moment. Now, since actual life situations constantly and successively alternate, in which the feeling-tones released are not only different but are actually mutually contrasting, the personality inevitably becomes dissipated in just so many different feelings." Introverted feeling (Fi) ========================== Introverted feeling (Fi) is the feeling function that is primarily concerned with authenticity, personal values and individuality. This is because it is focused inwardly and because of this, a dominant or auxiliary user of Fi can be quite reluctant to share their values, or be indifferent towards causes that are of no interest to the Fi user. Fi can be seen as individualistic and non-conformist. Fi is often seen as very hard to elucidate since so little of it is openly displayed. Jung writes of feeling in introverted feelers: "[Introverted feeling] is continually seeking an image which has no existence in reality, but which it has seen in a kind of vision. It glides over all objects that do not fit in with its aim. It strives after inner intensity, for which the objects serve at most as a stimulus. The depth of this feeling can only be guessedâit can never be clearly grasped. It makes people silent and difficult of access; it shrinks back like a violet from the brute nature of the object in order to fill the depths of the subject. It comes out with negative judgments or assumes an air of profound indifference as a means of defense." Sensation =========== Jung presented sensation as "that psychological function which transmits a physical stimulus to perception. [...] not only to the outer stimuli, but also to the inner, i.e. to changes in the internal organs. Primarily, therefore, sensation is sense-perception, i.e. perception transmitted via the sense organs and 'bodily senses' (kinaesthetic, vaso-motor sensation, etc.)." Also, since the process of conscious perception is a psychological phenomenon representing a physical phenomenon, and not the physical phenomenon itself, he adds: "On the one hand, it is an element of presentation, since it transmits to the presenting function the perceived image of the outer object; on the other hand, it is an element of feeling, because through the perception of bodily changes it lends the character of affect to feeling." Extroverted sensation (Se) ============================ Extroverted sensation is the sensing function that perceives phenomena in a realistic and concretist way. Like extroverted thinking, Se concerns itself with the facts; however, this is not for sake of logical fulfillment or completion, but for sake of receiving the highest physiological pleasure as possible. Extroverted sensation has little time for hidden meaningsâmost phenomena are self-explanatory to the Se psyche. Since an Se type's source of reward gravitates around perceiving and feeling external phenomena, a user of Se often has a good sense of aestheticâwhether this be the taste of food, or a new trend in clothing. Due to this mindset, Jung writes of the Se type's morality, "For true enjoyment, [the extroverted sensation type] has its own special morality, its own moderation and lawfulness, its own unselfishness and devotedness. It by no means follows that he is just sensual or gross, for he may differentiate his sensation to the finest pitch of aesthetic purity without being the least unfaithful, even in his most abstract sensations, to his principle of objective sensation." Introverted sensation (Si) ============================ Introverted sensation is the sensing function that perceives phenomena in such a way as extroverted sensation does above, but in a subjective manner. As Jung notes that all introverted functions focus on the past, Si is said to compare phenomena with past experiences (this has never been said by Jung himself; it is a common internet misconception) and is very detailed in what it detects, thus creating a level of conscientiousness and procedure in their work. It is chiefly concerned with a meticulous cataloging of physical experiences and recalling them when the user perceives similarity in their subjective experiences of current reality. It wants things to be pinned down and concluded, mistrusting novel possibilities which explains the adherence to traditional ways. Intuition =========== Intuition is also presented as a basic psychological function as hunches and visions provide an alternative means of perception to sensation: "It is that psychological function which transmits perceptions in an unconscious way. Everything, whether outer or inner objects or their associations, can be the object of this perception. Intuition has this peculiar quality: it is neither sensation, nor feeling, nor intellectual conclusion, although it may appear in any of these forms." Extraverted intuition (Ne) ============================ Extroverted intuition is the type of intuition that introspects in an extroverted and thus, objective mannerâthus, the extroverted intuitive type is the "brainstormer", one who introspects many possibilities for certain situations. Because of this, the extroverted intuitive is known to have quite flighty judgment and a lack of decisiveness. Unlike its extroverted irrational counterpart, extroverted sensation, extroverted intuition looks for not what is but what may be. Ne operates together with Si, forming the Ne-Si axis. It perceives possibilities in the external world, between objects (Ne) and these connections are synthesized from the subjective physical (concrete) impressions (Si) of the object, hence owing to the quirkiness and seemingly wild nature of their associations to an observer (higher Ne users) since their physical impressions of objects are subjective and hence obscured from objective view of physical reality (Se). Ne-Si can be termed as examining. Introverted intuition (Ni) ============================ Introverted intuition is the intuition that acts in an introverted and thus, subjective manner. Introverted intuition is a function that is often described as hard to explain, due to its highly inward and intangible nature. The introverted intuition type has the ability to 'thread' multiple sources of phenomena into a certain view or vision. This is contrary to its opposite, extroverted sensation, which sees things as they come and in a very concrete manner. The lack of this extroverted sensation can often make the Ni type a very dogged character, ignoring what is apparent and focusing on their synthesized worldview. Unlike its introverted irrational counterpart, introverted sensation, introverted intuition looks not to indulge in a meticulous cataloging of physical experiences and recalling them when the user perceives similarity in their subjective experiences of current reality (since Si doesn't objectively experience reality unlike Se) but always looks for future implications of the observable reality and how one chain of event leads to another. It always goes beyond the concrete data where Si does not. Where Ne perceives breadth, Ni compensates this with depth in its perceptions. Ni operates together with Se, forming the Se-Ni axis. It observes the physical properties of objects vividly (Se) and perceives possibilities in the inner world (Ni), where these perceptions are subjective and diluted by the subject's biases hence, these associations are personal to the subject and in no way represent reality, but an abstract interpretation. This gives higher Ni users intense focus and an air of mysticism. Ni dominants always go beyond the objective physical concreteness of objects and find their interpretation more interesting and delicious. Ni-Se can be termed as conjecturing. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator ====================================================================== | colspan="2" | **Myers' Dichotomies** | **E**xtraversion | **I**ntroversion | **S**ensing | i**N**tuition | **T**hinking | **F**eeling | **J**udging | **P**erceiving colspan="2" | Bold letters are used as shorthand labels Isabel Myers, an early pioneer of psychometric testing whose ideas remain controversial within psychology, formalized these ideas and proposed that the mixture of types in an individual's personality could be measured through responses to a personality test she devised along with her mother, Katharine Cook Briggs, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. In this model, four "dichotomies" are defined, each labelled by two letters (one for each of the opposites in question), as shown by the emboldened letters in the table. Individuals' personalities fall into sixteen different categories depending on which side of each dichotomy they belong to, labelled by the four applicable letters (for example, an "ESFP" type is someone whose preferences are extroversion, sensing, feeling and perceiving). Controversy over attitudes ====================================================================== Myers interpreted Jung as saying that the auxiliary, tertiary, and inferior functions are always in the opposite attitude of the dominant. In support of Myers' (and/or Briggs') interpretation, in one sentence Jung seems to state that the "three inferior" functions of an (extreme) extrovert are introverted. The "most differentiated function is always employed in an extroverted way, whereas the inferior functions are introverted". Many, however, have found Jung's writing to be ambiguous, and those who study and follow Jung's theories (Jungians) are typically adamant that Myers is incorrect. Jungians interpret Jung as explicitly stating that the tertiary function is actually in the same attitude as the dominant, providing balance. More recently, typologists such as John Beebe and Linda Berens have introduced theoretical systems in which all people possess eight functionsâequivalent to the four functions as defined by Jung and Myers but in each of the two possible attitudesâwith the four in the opposite attitude to that measured known as the "shadow functions", residing largely in the unconscious. There is controversy even within the Center for Applications of Psychological Type (CAPT), co-founded by Myers, regarding the attitude of the tertiary relative to the dominant. "The MBTI Qualifying Program", a binder given out during official training, puts the tertiary in the opposite attitude to the dominant on page 13; however, 'The Manual', which gives official instructions on how to use the test, has the tertiary in the same attitude on page 31. Charles Martin, former vice president of research at CAPT, writes the following on page 22 of the binder, '"In what attitude is the tertiary? Isabel Myers read Jung to say that the auxiliary, tertiary, and inferior are all in the same attitude and opposite the dominant. Others (Harold Grant) read: tertiary is in the same attitude as the dominant.'" To summarize Jung's views, as discussed in 'Psychological Types' and maintained until his death, Jung posited that each individual follows a "general attitude of consciousness" where every conscious act is directed by the tendency to follow introversion for introverts and extroversion for extroverts. Jung's definition of the general attitude was not limiting the individual from experiencing the opposing attitude, but offers the "decisive determination". The primary, or most developed, differentiated, and conscious function, is entirely positioned in the service of the conscious attitude of introversion or extroversion, but even if all other functions can be conscious and made to follow the general attitude, they are of less differentiation and are hence strongly affected by the opposing attitude of the unconscious. Later in the book, Jung describes the auxiliary function as being capable of some significant development or differentiation, if it remains less differentiated of that of the primary. His views on the primary and auxiliary functions both being of enough differentiation to be considered conscious and set aside with the primary as opposed to the most inferior two functions can be noted as early as Psychological Types. Furthermore, the evidence given by Myers for the orientation of the auxiliary function relies on one sentence from Jung: "For all the types met with in practice, the rule holds good that besides the conscious, primary function there is a relatively unconscious, auxiliary function which is in every respect different from the nature of the primary function." And in using this phrase to set an opposing attitude for the auxiliary function, Myers disregarded that in Jungian language, functions are separate from their orientation, as orientation is a property of consciousness as a whole, and also disregarded the examples Jung gave immediately afterwards in the text that do not speak of attitude: "From these combinations well-known pictures arise, the practical intellect for instance paired with sensation, the speculative intellect breaking through with intuition, the artistic intuition which selects. and presents its images by means of feeling judgement, the philosophical intuition which, in league with a vigorous intellect, translates its vision into the sphere of comprehensible thought, and so forth." And also disregards the context and language Jung used in speaking of the four functions: "I distinguish these functions from one another because they cannot be related or reduced to one another. The principle of thinking, for instance, is absolutely different from the principle of feeling, and so forth." Different models ====================================================================== The tables below give different theorists' ideas about personality types in terms of "cognitive functions". Carl Jung =========== Carl Jung developed the theory of cognitive processes in his book 'Psychological Types' in which he defined only four psychological functions which can take introverted or extroverted attitudes, as well as a judging (rational) or perceiving (irrational) attitude determined by the primary function (judging if thinking or feeling, and perceiving if sensation or intuition). He used the terms dominant, auxiliary, and inferior. Each individual follows a "general attitude of consciousness" in which the function is conscious. The more conscious a function is, the higher the tendency and potential it has to develop. The less differentiation is hence strongly affected by the opposing attitude of the unconscious, and manifest in "happening" to the person and not under conscious control. Therefore, there is a significant difference between Jung and the MBTI regarding the orientation of the functions. Also, there is a difference between Jung and the MBTI regarding the designation of "inferior" function. While the MBTI clearly designates only the fourth function as the inferior, Jung uses a more flexible definition. "As a consequence of this one-sided development, one or more functions are necessarily retarded. These functions may properly be called 'inferior' ..." The following table is a summarized model of Jung's conception of personality types based on the four functions, introversion, and extroversion. General Attitude colspan="8" | Extraverted |**Rational/Irrational Attitude** colspan="4" | Judging (Rational) colspan="4" | Perceiving (Irrational) |**Function Type** colspan="2" | Extraverted Thinking colspan="2" | Extraverted Feeling colspan="2" | Extraverted Sensation colspan="2" | Extraverted Intuitive |**Auxiliary Function** Sensation Intuition Sensation Intuition Thinking Feeling Thinking Feeling |** Primary: Most differentiated in the extraverted consciousness** Thinking Thinking Feeling Feeling Sensation Sensation Intuition Intuition |**Auxiliary: Less differentiated. Assists the primary** Sensation Intuition Sensation Intuition Thinking Feeling Thinking Feeling | rowspan="2" |**Inferior: Mostly undifferentiated.** **Can fall under the influence of** **the introverted unconscious** Intuition Sensation Intuition Sensation Feeling Thinking Feeling Thinking Feeling Feeling Thinking Thinking Intuition Intuition Sensation Sensation General Attitude colspan="8" | Introverted |**Rational/Irrational Attitude** colspan="4" | Judging (Rational) colspan="4" | Perceiving (Irrational) |**Function Type** colspan="2" | Introverted Thinking colspan="2" | Introverted Feeling colspan="2" | Introverted Sensation colspan="2" | Introverted Intuitive |**Auxiliary Function** Sensation Intuition Sensation Intuition Thinking Feeling Thinking Feeling |** Primary: Most differentiated in the introverted consciousness** Thinking Thinking Feeling Feeling Sensation Sensation Intuition Intuition |**Auxiliary: Less differentiated. Assists the primary** Sensation Intuition Sensation Intuition Thinking Feeling Thinking Feeling | rowspan="2" |**Inferior: Mostly undifferentiated.** **Can fall under the influence of** **the extraverted unconscious** Intuition Sensation Intuition Sensation Feeling Thinking Feeling Thinking Feeling Feeling Thinking Thinking Intuition Intuition Sensation Sensation Isabel Myers ============== Isabel Myers created the original type table. In her table, diametrically opposite personality types (that is, those with no traits in common among the dichotomies) are separated by one block along diagonals. John Beebe ============ Though John Beebe has not published a type table, the format that Isabel Myers devised can also be applied to his theory. Beebe describes the different cognitive functions' role in the overall personality in terms of various mythic archetypes. Just as in Myers's table, personality types whose primary four functions are completely opposite are separated by one block along diagonals. The same does not apply to the four "shadow" functions, however. John Beebe's model is based on Jung's theory of the collective unconscious, which is not part of the current scientific consensus and may be unfalsifiable. bgcolor="#FFDDFF" | Type bgcolor="#FFDDFF" bgcolor="#FFDDFF" bgcolor="#FFDDFF" bgcolor="#FFDDFF" bgcolor="#EEDDBB" | Type bgcolor="#EEDDBB" bgcolor="#EEDDBB" bgcolor="#EEDDBB" bgcolor="#EEDDBB" bgcolor="#DDDDFF" | Type bgcolor="#DDDDFF" bgcolor="#DDDDFF" bgcolor="#DDDDFF" bgcolor="#DDDDFF" bgcolor="#DDFFDD" | Type bgcolor="#DDFFDD" bgcolor="#DDFFDD" bgcolor="#DDFFDD" bgcolor="#DDFFDD" Linda Berens ============== The layout of Linda Berens's type table is unique and her terminology differs from that of Beebe; however, the ordering of cognitive processes in her and Beebe's models are the same. | bgcolor="#FFDDFF" colspan="2" | **Engineer** | bgcolor="#FFDDFF" colspan="2" | **Coordinator** bgcolor="#FFDDFF" | Type bgcolor="#FFDDFF" bgcolor="#FFDDFF" bgcolor="#FFDDFF" bgcolor="#FFDDFF" | bgcolor="#EEDDBB" colspan="2" | **Mediator** | bgcolor="#EEDDBB" colspan="2" | **Guide** bgcolor="#EEDDBB" | Type bgcolor="#EEDDBB" bgcolor="#EEDDBB" bgcolor="#EEDDBB" bgcolor="#EEDDBB" | bgcolor="#DDDDFF" colspan="2" | **Expediator** | bgcolor="#DDDDFF" colspan="2" | **Monitor** bgcolor="#DDDDFF" | Type bgcolor="#DDDDFF" bgcolor="#DDDDFF" bgcolor="#DDDDFF" bgcolor="#DDDDFF" | bgcolor="#DDFFDD" colspan="2" | **Improvisor** | bgcolor="#DDFFDD" colspan="2" | **Conservator** bgcolor="#DDFFDD" | Type bgcolor="#DDFFDD" bgcolor="#DDFFDD" bgcolor="#DDFFDD" bgcolor="#DDFFDD" Lenore Thomson ================ Lenore Thomson offers yet another model of the cognitive functions. In her book, 'Personality Type: An Owners Manual', Thomson advances a hypothesis of a modular relationship of the cognitive functions paralleling left-right brain lateralization. In this approach the Judging functions are in the front-left and back-right brain and the Perception functions in the back-left and front-right brain. The extraverted functions are in the front of the brain, while the introverted functions are in the back of the brain. The order of the cognitive functions are then determined not by an archetypal hierarchy (as supposed by Beebe) but by an innate brain lateralization preference. colspan="2" | Brain Types by Lenore Thomson | **Front of Left Brain** | **Front of Right Brain** Extraverted Thinking & Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Intuition & Extraverted Sensing Introverted Sensation & Introverted Intuition Introverted Feeling & Introverted Thinking | **Back of Left Brain** | **Back of Right Brain** bgcolor="#FFDDFF" | Type bgcolor="#FFDDFF" bgcolor="#FFDDFF" bgcolor="#FFDDFF" bgcolor="#FFDDFF" bgcolor="#EEDDBB" | Type bgcolor="#EEDDBB" bgcolor="#EEDDBB" bgcolor="#EEDDBB" bgcolor="#EEDDBB" bgcolor="#DDDDFF" | Type bgcolor="#DDDDFF" bgcolor="#DDDDFF" bgcolor="#DDDDFF" bgcolor="#DDDDFF" bgcolor="#DDFFDD" | Type bgcolor="#DDFFDD" bgcolor="#DDFFDD" bgcolor="#DDFFDD" bgcolor="#DDFFDD" Further reading ====================================================================== * * Myers, Isabel Myers (1995) [1980]. 'Gifts Differing', Palo Alto, C.A.: Davies-Black Publishing. . * Thompson, Henry L (1996). 'Jung's Function-Attitudes Explained', Watkinsville, GA.: Wormhole Publishing. . * Nardi, Dario (2005). "8 Keys to Self-Leadership From Awareness To Action", Huntington Beach, CA :Unite Business Press. . * Thomson, Lenore (1998). 'Personality Type: An Owners Manual', Boston & London: Shambhala Publications, Inc. . External links ====================================================================== * [http://www.capt.org/ Center for Applications of Psychological Type website] * [http://www.cognitiveprocesses.com 8 Cognitive Processes website] License ========= All content on Gopherpedia comes from Wikipedia, and is licensed under CC-BY-SA License URL: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ Original Article: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungian_cognitive_functions .